GLOBAL WARMING

Warmer temperatures increase melting of mountain glaciers, increase ocean heat content, and cause ocean water to increase. This occupies some good part of the land and Local land sinks due to geologic forces and coastal development will also affect the rate of coastal land loss and water to expand.so in this case,land that is ment to b occupied by terrestrial animals is lost n they wll lack weya to live with that,they wil b subjected to a lot of stress where to stay n end up dying..for instance when mountain elgon’s glacier melts,water runs to manafa river. this kills the beauty of the environment and more so the tourist industry.without tourism being utilized in the environment,development is put at a stake in terms of funds.

Indicater species
Lichens, fungal and algae symbiosis are sensitive to air pollution because they accumulate toxic elements. Frogs and other amphibians are sensitive to pollution as they live on the boundary between the land and water environments and can easily absorb pollutants through their skin. These die off and
The environment loses meaning without them.this has put research in species difficult hence developmet lags behind.

poverty
the lack of adequate sanitation water supply, and desertification are problems that cause poverty which in this case is a warning signal of the existing situation in Uganda today. Especially in the rural area,.the need to solve all these problems needs a lot of funding which is inadequate,development has been put at a stake.


Environmental Stress.Environmental stress is defined as the minor irritations and frustrations of every day life that we all experience. Examples of environmental stress include trying to get things done amongst clutter and disorganization, being late for work or an appointment and then getting caught in a traffic jam, being interrupted when trying to concentrate or aches and pains from sitting all day in an uncomfortable chair. In addition, environmental stress can include such things as the quality of the air we breathe, the type of lighting that we have to work in, and the level of noise in the environment.Although environmental stress may seem minor, these constant irritations add up to decrease our overall feelings of happiness as well as cause us to secrete small amounts of stress hormones into the blood stream. When we experience a major stress, environmental stress makes these experiences even more difficult to handle. That is why it is important to recognize environmental stress and take steps to alleviate it as it occurs.Environmental stress caused by poor air quality can be avoided by ensuring that you properly ventilate areas that you spend much of your time. In addition, you may install filters to clean the air of environmental stress causing pollutants. Poor air quality can come from everyday household items such as carpet, some furniture, mildew, and mold, animal dander, cleaning supplies, adhesives, heating, air conditioning, excess humidity and dryness and even copiers. Smoking indoors is another major environmental pollutant that can cause environmental stress. People can be negatively affected by this environmental stress from even small amounts of these toxins in the air. Some people can even get physically ill with anything from allergies to headaches. With our modern, energy-efficient homes, we have actually exacerbated this type of environmental stress because our windows and doors are too good. It used to be that windows and doors allowed drafts. This may have caused higher heating and cooling costs but it also ensured that the same stagnant air was not being breathed in constantly. Whenever you can, open windows to allow some fresh air into your home or office. Environmental stress caused by poor air quality in polluted cities can cause concentration problems, headaches, and fatigue. Carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide are two environmental pollutants that cause problems.Lighting is a very subtle form of environmental stress. Many people work in artificial light and are not aware that it causes environmental stress. It is important to get as much natural light as possible because natural light gives the mood a boost and regulates the internal body clock. Many people gain weight and feel more depressed in winter months. This may be due to seasonal affective disorder or SAD. SAD is caused by a lack of sunlight. The lack of sunlight makes us feel down and causes stress so that we feel like eating more which may lead to weight gain. If possible, work next to a window so that you have more exposure to natural light or take your breaks outside in the sunlight rather than in the break room.
Nutritional supplements can also be very beneficial for dealing with stress. We recommend using Extress, a homeopathic and nutrition supplement that is exceptionally effective in aiding the body during periods of stress, tension, anxiety, minor phobic reactions and complaints of generalized patterns of anxious discomfort. To avoid environmental stress caused by smoking indoors, be sure to work in a smoke-free environment and do not allow others to smoke in your home. This is especially true if you have children because they are affected by second hand smoke more than adults due to their smaller lung capacities. To reduce environmental stress caused by dry air, use humidifiers and plants. Plants naturally humidify the air because when you water them, some of the water absorbs into the air. Plants also produce oxygen and reduce carbon dioxide in the air. If you are experiencing environmental stress from dryness, you should be sure to consume the recommended amount of water (six to eight glasses) a day. To reduce environmental stress caused by humid air, use a dehumidifier.Environmental stress may even be caused by the clutter and disorganization in your environment. Take a good look around, and eliminate item in your environment that you do not really need. Even if you feel that you spent a lot of money on your “stuff” is it really making you happy if it is in a cluttered, disorganized state? What are these things costing you in peace of mind? Give it away, throw it away or sell it if you have not used it in at least a year. You probably won’t miss it and will feel better in an organized, clean environment. Believe it or not, color has a lot to do with environmental stress. Studies have shown that people’s moods are affected by color. Some people associate the color red with anger and this color may actually trigger these feelings and stress. On the other hand, the colors green and blue tend to be calming colors. This is why actors wait to go on in the “green room” before a performance.Be aware that background noise can also cause environmental stress and reduce it as much as possible.

Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment refers to unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitutes sexual harassment when submission to or rejection of this conduct explicitly or implicitly affects an individual's employment, unreasonably interferes with an individual's work performance or creates an intimidating, hostile or offensive work environment.
Sexual harassment can occur in a variety of circumstances, including but not limited to the following:
The victim as well as the harasser may be a woman or a man. The victim does not have to be of the opposite sex.
The harasser can be the victim's supervisor, an agent of the employer, a supervisor in another area, a co-worker, or a non-employee.
The victim does not have to be the person harassed but could be anyone affected by the offensive conduct.
Unlawful sexual harassment may occur without economic injury to or discharge of the victim.
The harasser's conduct must be unwelcome.
It is helpful for the victim to directly inform the harasser that the conduct is unwelcome and must stop. The victim should use any employer complaint mechanism or grievance system available.
When investigating allegations of sexual harassment, EEOC looks at the whole record: the circumstances, such as the nature of the sexual advances, and the context in which the alleged incidents occurred. A determination on the allegations is made from the facts on a case-by-case basis.
Prevention is the best tool to eliminate sexual harassment in the workplace. Employers are encouraged to take steps necessary to prevent sexual harassment from occurring. They should clearly communicate to employees that sexual harassment will not be tolerated. They can do so by establishing an effective complaint or grievance process and taking immediate and appropriate action when an employee complains.

GLOBAL WARMING

Warmer temperatures increase melting of mountain glaciers, increase ocean heat content, and cause ocean water to increase. This occupies some good part of the land and Local land sinks due to geologic forces and coastal development will also affect the rate of coastal land loss and water to expand.so in this case,land that is ment to b occupied by terrestrial animals is lost n they wll lack weya to live with that,they wil b subjected to a lot of stress where to stay n end up dying..for instance when mountain elgon’s glacier melts,water runs to manafa river. this kills the beauty of the environment and more so the tourist industry.without tourism being utilized in the environment,development is put at a stake in terms of funds.

Indicater species
Lichens, fungal and algae symbiosis are sensitive to air pollution because they accumulate toxic elements. Frogs and other amphibians are sensitive to pollution as they live on the boundary between the land and water environments and can easily absorb pollutants through their skin. These die off and
The environment loses meaning without them.this has put research in species difficult hence developmet lags behind.

poverty
the lack of adequate sanitation water supply, and desertification are problems that cause poverty which in this case is a warning signal of the existing situation in Uganda today. Especially in the rural area,.the need to solve all these problems needs a lot of funding which is inadequate,development has been put at a stake.


Environmental Stress.Environmental stress is defined as the minor irritations and frustrations of every day life that we all experience. Examples of environmental stress include trying to get things done amongst clutter and disorganization, being late for work or an appointment and then getting caught in a traffic jam, being interrupted when trying to concentrate or aches and pains from sitting all day in an uncomfortable chair. In addition, environmental stress can include such things as the quality of the air we breathe, the type of lighting that we have to work in, and the level of noise in the environment.Although environmental stress may seem minor, these constant irritations add up to decrease our overall feelings of happiness as well as cause us to secrete small amounts of stress hormones into the blood stream. When we experience a major stress, environmental stress makes these experiences even more difficult to handle. That is why it is important to recognize environmental stress and take steps to alleviate it as it occurs.Environmental stress caused by poor air quality can be avoided by ensuring that you properly ventilate areas that you spend much of your time. In addition, you may install filters to clean the air of environmental stress causing pollutants. Poor air quality can come from everyday household items such as carpet, some furniture, mildew, and mold, animal dander, cleaning supplies, adhesives, heating, air conditioning, excess humidity and dryness and even copiers. Smoking indoors is another major environmental pollutant that can cause environmental stress. People can be negatively affected by this environmental stress from even small amounts of these toxins in the air. Some people can even get physically ill with anything from allergies to headaches. With our modern, energy-efficient homes, we have actually exacerbated this type of environmental stress because our windows and doors are too good. It used to be that windows and doors allowed drafts. This may have caused higher heating and cooling costs but it also ensured that the same stagnant air was not being breathed in constantly. Whenever you can, open windows to allow some fresh air into your home or office. Environmental stress caused by poor air quality in polluted cities can cause concentration problems, headaches, and fatigue. Carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide are two environmental pollutants that cause problems.Lighting is a very subtle form of environmental stress. Many people work in artificial light and are not aware that it causes environmental stress. It is important to get as much natural light as possible because natural light gives the mood a boost and regulates the internal body clock. Many people gain weight and feel more depressed in winter months. This may be due to seasonal affective disorder or SAD. SAD is caused by a lack of sunlight. The lack of sunlight makes us feel down and causes stress so that we feel like eating more which may lead to weight gain. If possible, work next to a window so that you have more exposure to natural light or take your breaks outside in the sunlight rather than in the break room.
Nutritional supplements can also be very beneficial for dealing with stress. We recommend using Extress, a homeopathic and nutrition supplement that is exceptionally effective in aiding the body during periods of stress, tension, anxiety, minor phobic reactions and complaints of generalized patterns of anxious discomfort. To avoid environmental stress caused by smoking indoors, be sure to work in a smoke-free environment and do not allow others to smoke in your home. This is especially true if you have children because they are affected by second hand smoke more than adults due to their smaller lung capacities. To reduce environmental stress caused by dry air, use humidifiers and plants. Plants naturally humidify the air because when you water them, some of the water absorbs into the air. Plants also produce oxygen and reduce carbon dioxide in the air. If you are experiencing environmental stress from dryness, you should be sure to consume the recommended amount of water (six to eight glasses) a day. To reduce environmental stress caused by humid air, use a dehumidifier.Environmental stress may even be caused by the clutter and disorganization in your environment. Take a good look around, and eliminate item in your environment that you do not really need. Even if you feel that you spent a lot of money on your “stuff” is it really making you happy if it is in a cluttered, disorganized state? What are these things costing you in peace of mind? Give it away, throw it away or sell it if you have not used it in at least a year. You probably won’t miss it and will feel better in an organized, clean environment. Believe it or not, color has a lot to do with environmental stress. Studies have shown that people’s moods are affected by color. Some people associate the color red with anger and this color may actually trigger these feelings and stress. On the other hand, the colors green and blue tend to be calming colors. This is why actors wait to go on in the “green room” before a performance. Be aware that background noise can also cause environmental stress and reduce it as much as possible.

SOCIAL SUPPORT

Social support is a broad term involving the transfer of assistance, affection, and information between people. For this paper, it includes instrumental support, a somewhat more focused term referring to the goal-oriented transfer of information or tangible assistance between people. Instrumental support is a key element of social capital. Social capital refers to the instrumental utility of social resources (Lin, Cook, and Burt 2001). Both personal and social resources are linked to social status and are important to studies of social stratification and social mobility. Social resources, in the form of a range of network ties or connections to others (especially those higher up in the social hierarchy), are associated with improved status attainment (Lin 1999).
Social support is also important to health. Studies of the number of social ties and the frequency of social contacts have linked lower social integration with mortality (House, Umberson, and Landis 1988; Uchino 2004). The qualitative aspects of social ties and the availability of support have also been associated with mental health, especially, depression (Lin, Dean, and Ensel 1982). Beyond the presence or absence of support, the sources of support or who provides support may also be important (Dressier et al. 2005; Dressier, McBalierio, and Dos Santos 1997). Social support is hypothesized to affect health directly as decreased social integration results in increased mortality, and indirectly by buffering the deleterious effects of stressful experiences.
When asked with whom they had discussed "important matters" in the last six months, most Americans name between one and five people (Marsden 1987). Spouses and other kin are most often reported (Hurt 1986; Hurlbert and Acock 1990; Liao and Stevens 1994), with a slightly higher proportion of kin reported by younger and less educated respondents (Marsden 1987). Women also tend to name a higher proportion and greater diversity of kin ties (Moore 1990).
Patterns in whom is identified for support have been described in terms of a "convoy" of persons or in terms of a hierarchy of people, that may vary by task-specific needs. Kahn and Antonucci (1980) described a convoy or layered model to describe social support for older adults. Conceived of as three layers of social support, paralleling the degree of their closeness to the respondent, each layer is thought to provide support and protection from psychological and physical health risks. Antonucci and Akiyama (1987) described the layers in the convoy model in terms of time, propinquity, and frequency of contact, but the layers of support map well onto social roles. The inner-most circles (the closest relationships) were predominately kin (spouses and children, followed by siblings and other kin) and the outer-most circle was predominately friends.
Although social support has been variously defined in terms of the quantity, quality, and pattern of social relationships, one issue is whether there are preferred patterns or expectations about who should provide support. This study explores the possibility that a "cultural model" of support exists. A cultural model of social support would imply that there exists a shared notion of what is appropriate or desirable in the way of receiving support from family, friends, and co-workers. The present study looks at community preferences for different sources of support in different contexts, for example, during times of financial need or a minor illness, and examines the degree to which preferences in patterns of seeking social support are shared across community members. We hypothesize that, although individuals vary in the degree to which their personal model of ideal social support may vary from the normative model, there is a single shared set of beliefs regarding the hierarchy of resort in seeking social support.

University Students disassociate themselves from PRA suspects saga

Makerere University concerned students committee has strongly opposed the Guild President, Gerald Karuhanga`s, directive calling students to desist from attending lectures until the Eight (8) Peoples Redemption Army (PRA) suspects charged of treason are released.
This follows the recent directive on 1st march, whereby students of Makerere University and other Universities in Uganda were urged and mobilized to desist attending lessons in boycott of the government disrespect to the rule of law.
Addressing journalist at Makerere University Guest house, speaker of the concerned students, Twahika Denis, said that the acts being instigated are politically motivated by students vowing for political benefits at the expenses of students future.
Karuhanga has been branded to have maneuvered the havoc without the consent of the University Guild Committee by continuing to mobilizing students of different universities not to attend class, to put government on tension and release the PRA suspects.
“Our concern is reading books and pursue studies, but anything out of that and undefined, totally gains no support from we the intellectuals of the nation,” said Twahika.
For the first time, University students have come together to desist any more strike on the ground that it yield no good apart from losing reputation of the University.
Earlier November 2006, Makerere University was closed for a period of one month after students join lecturers strike on demand for remunerations to 3.9 millions (3000 USD).
Chairman of the committee, Kiligwajo Richard, urged students to be calm and attend their lectures tomorrow-Monday.
“ Instigators are fighting a losing battle because no student is in support of the strike and the situation is calm and favorable, “ said Kiligwajo.
He added that there need to realize enemies coming as friends but ready to destroy the future of attaining academic credence.
Makerere University Academic affair Minister, Kyomuhanjo Annet, said that the battle is unidentified and the act usurp the power of the judiciary, which is handling the PRA suspect proceedings.
“Let the Guild President Karuhanga, apologize to student, because he over reacted to issue such a statement without consultation from the university students body,” said Kyomuhanjo.
She added that the last experiences of strikes led to the closure of the University, killing by police during riot, loss of property by University and business owners around the university, with the deteriorating University standard, which affect the students in turn.
The Guild official from Kyambogo University, Natumanya Heron, advised students understand that its not only through strike to put the wrong right, but diplomatic measures can be applied to achieve the set goals.
“There is need for a favorable environment in handling issues, know the sole purpose of being a university student, and Kyambogo has disassociated from any illegal act,” said Natumanya.
Students have been advised to desist from the instigated political motive, but adore for academic mandate rather than causing havoc to the nation.
Parents, Guardians, relatives and students are urged not to worry about the situation since the Vice Chancellor Livingstone Luboobi, and Dean of students John Ekudu, have taken the matters seriously, to ensure a favorable learning environment at the University.
The committee asked Universities and tertiary institutions students to desist from bad politics and ignore boycott of lectures to perfect academic excellence.
The committee including students of Makerere University Business School (MUBS), Kampala International University (KIU), and Uganda Christian University-Mukono (UCU) demands the guild leaders to come out objectively to address students concern and avoid instigating politically motivated violence among the students community.

Strategic Opportunism and Organizational Learning

"The universe is full of magical things patiently waiting for our wits to grow sharper.

In his article on "Crafting Strategy," Henry Mintzberg provides a good insight to how strategies and innovative actions evolve and compliment each other in top-performing organizations: "Out in the field, a salesman visits a customer. The product isn't quite right, and together they work out some modifications. The salesman returns to his company and puts the changes through; after two or three more rounds, they finally get it right. A new product emerges, which eventually opens up a new market. The company has changed strategic course."
But in most organizations that salesman would be told to get back out and "do his job" by selling the customer the original product or some high priced add-on or support service. If he did make modifications, he'd be shot for not following the standardized process. In other cases, he'd be told to submit a Product Modification Input Solicitation form sending copies to product development, strategic planning, and three other committees to review. His regional manager would need a copy attached to his Call Report explaining where, when, who, why, and how he was spending each day of his time.
Successful strategies and innovations that evolve and cash in on unexpected problems or opportunities are part of a dynamic, organization learning process.
Experiences, expertise, ideas, market and customer shifts, feedback, input and the like shape the emerging strategies and point the way to innovation pathways.

SOME BASICS OF COUNSELING

Everyone needs someone to talk with at times. Counseling is a growth process through which students are helped to define goals, make decisions, and solve problems related to personal, social, academic, and career concerns. Counselors help students to resolve personal and educational concerns, which may include:
Relationships with family, friends, romantic partner, or roommate
Feeling stressed or anxious
Anger and interpersonal conflicts
Depression, loneliness, shyness
Grief and loss
Self-esteem and self-confidence
Sexual issues and decisions
Sexual Orientation
Alcohol and drug related problems
Adjusting to a new environment
Personal crises
Difficulties with study skills
Time management
Motivation
Choices about majors and careers
Communication with instructors
Confidentiality
Counseling often deals with very personal and private issues. Counselors respect students' privacy and will not release information disclosed in counseling without the student's explicit permission, except in situations when it is necessary to protect the student's or another person's safety. These include times when the counselor has reason to believe that you are in danger of harming yourself, you are an actual threat to the safety of another person, or situations (past or present) when a child under the age of 18, or a vulnerable adult, is being abused or neglected.
Common Messages about Counseling
Misperceptions may often prevent one from seeking counseling. The media, family and friends, as well as larger cultural messages often shape these perceptions. Do any of the following statements sound familiar?

Generally, what you reveal in counseling is treated as confidential.Your written permission is required before a counselor can even acknowledge that you attended a session.Exceptions to confidentiality occur when a person is at risk.
Counseling involves change, which is rarely simple or easy. Your readiness is essential to successful outcomes. A counselor may be helpful to you in expanding options or providing alternative perspectives.
Your self-awareness and understanding is essential to ongoing personal growth.

Essential Counseling Techniques and Skills

Some Qualities of a Good Counselor
Empathetic (the ability to understand the view of another person)
Respectful
Warm
Confidential/discreet
Honest
Attentive/listening
Unbiased
Understandable/clear
Unhurried
Good Counseling Skills
Effective Questioning. Use questions to elicit facts or feelings about the client’s health. Use closed-ended questions (yes/no) to quickly gather factual, nonsensitive information (e.g., name, age), while open-ended questions (e.g., "What do you know about the AIDS virus?" and "How do you think you might have gotten this infection?") are critical for eliciting feelings and detailed information. Use probing questions (e.g., "Can you tell me more about ____?") to elicit more in-depth information.
Active Listening. In order to get the information you need to help a client, you must listen actively. This technique involves communicating, without words, your interest in the needs the client expresses. You can open up communication by using silence. You can let the client know that you are listening by maintaining eye contact, leaning forward, occasionally saying words like "yes," "uh-huh," and "please continue"—these are signs of respect and generate a feeling of well-being in the person who is being heard.
Paraphrasing, Summarizing, and Clarifying. This technique involves repeating, synthesizing, or summarizing in other words what the client has told you. This helps the provider clarify what the client is saying, and helps the client to feel that he or she has been heard.
Reflecting and Validating Feelings. This technique involves clarifying the feelings the client expresses in order to help understand his or her emotions. For example, "It seems to me that you are worried because you suspect that your husband had sex with other women, and you are afraid that you will get AIDS." It is helpful to clients to let them know that their reactions to a situation are normal, and that those feelings are common to other people in similar situations. You can communicate that the feelings are valid.
Giving Clear Information. Before you give any information, it is helpful to ask questions to determine how much the client already knows. It is important to provide information using words that the client can understand. Ask clients to repeat the information you have given them to verify that they understood.
Arriving at Agreement. This technique involves clarifying and summarizing the decisions that a client has made during the counseling session.
Inappropriate Responses in Counseling
Judging: For example, "You wouldn’t have these problems if you hadn’t had sex without being married."
Attacking: For example, "How could you be that irresponsible? Having sex without using a condom!"
Denial: For example, "Don’t worry. I’m sure that it’s nothing important. Just a little infection."
Pity: For example, "Poor thing! How terrible that happened! I hope you don’t have an STI!"

Counseling Methods

A. Psychoanalytic
1. FreudHYPERLINK "http://www.psychoheresy-aware.org/freudl36.html", Sigmund: This man is the founder of psychoanalysis, and believed religion to be "the universal obessional neurosis of humanity." He considered sexual impulses to be a primary source of motivation for man, and that mental activity is essentially unconscious; i.e., that the unconscious is a hidden reservoir of the mind which is filled with drives and impulses which govern a person's thinking and behavior. .2. Adler, Alfred: The first well-known dissenter from Freud's school of thought. Adler became the father of what he called "individual psychology." He shifted the motivational emphasis from biological instincts to social relationships. He believed man's primary motivation to be a "will to power." This is based upon his conception of the universal need of children to be dependent upon adults. Such dependency produces feelings of inadequacy and inferiority which each must strive to overcome. (Adler is also considered a humanist.)3. JungHYPERLINK "http://www.psychoheresy-aware.org/jungleg.html", Carl: Here is another dissenter from Freud's school who de-emphasized the role of sex in personality development. Jung also disagreed on the importance of dealing with an individual's past. He submitted that attention must be given to man's religious, aesthetic, and other such needs. Thus, in Jung we see the seeds of modern day existentialism being planted. He is also noted for his work with the concepts of introversion/extroversion and archetypes.4. Horney, Karen: She is the first person to talk about a self-concept, and thus we can see in her approach the roots of the third force theorists. Problems are considered to stem from a "basic anxiety" that may be produced in individuals if they are not reared in an accepting environment. Therapy consists of diminishing discrepancies between one's ideal-self and self-concept.5. Sullivan, Harry S.: The term "interpersonal anxiety" was coined by this man to express his belief that man's greatest need is for satisfactory relationships with others. But these basic relationship needs are not considered to be linked to physiological needs. Sullivan was the first to formally construct a motivational hierarchy of physiological needs.6. Erikson, Erik: He designed what are called the eight stages of ego development. Each stage is said to be dependent upon the former. Counseling centers around identifying one's present stage of development and working toward the next.7. Fromm, Erich: His work was grounded in Freudian psychoanalytic theory, but evolved into humanistic psychology. In his books Escape From Freedom and The Art of Loving , Fromm sets forth his idea that man fears being independent, and therefore, seeks structure for security. Fromm is a total humanist, expander of secular existentialism, and initially developed the self-love concepts adapted by today's church.8. Berne, Eric: This man is the father of "transactional analysis." Therapy consists of analyzing and categorizing communication "bits" as expressing certain roles. The goal is the understanding of why communication fails and making appropriate adjustments. The roles (parent, adult, and child) are comparable to the psychoanalytic personality structures (super-ego, ego, and id, respectively).9. Harris, Thomas: He is a popular transactional analyst who wrote the book I'm OK, You're OK .
B. Behavioristic
1. Watson, J. B.: As an originator of behaviorism, Watson stressed a reductionistic approach to the study of human behavior. Reacting to the use of unseen constructs to explain behavior, he opted for operationally defined constructs.2. Skinner, B. F.: This man is most responsible for popularizing behavioristic philosophy. He authored Walden II , a book describing a utopian society based upon this approach to controlling human behavior. He firmly asserts that man can be wholly understood and controlled through the basic principles of learning (once they are discovered). Motivation is seen as a purely hedonistic matter.3. Wolpe, Joseph: A method called "systematic desensitization" has been developed by Wolpe to deal with fear. In this approach, responses prohibitive of fear are elicited and then the previously fear producing stimulus is gradually introduced into the situation. Thus, given the same stimulus, the new response is supposedly substituted for the fear response.4. Glasser, William: The father of "reality therapy" has been well accepted by the teaching profession and in the field of corrections. His is a hedonistic approach to directing individuals in seeking the best possible life given the powers and circumstances that exist.5. DobsonHYPERLINK "http://www.rapidnet.com/~jbeard/bdm/exposes/dobson/", James: The author of Dare to Discipline presents an approach to child-rearing which is based primarily upon developing a system of immediate rewards and punishments. The admonition aspect of Ephesians 6:4 is absent and the nature of his system is extra-Biblical. He is primarily known, however, as a self-love practitioner.
C. Humanistic ("Self" Theorists)
1. Rogers, Carl: As the father of "client-centered therapy," Rogers has said that the counselor is to be "nondirective" in the sessions--his job is to reflect the counselee's responses back to him and, thus, set up a catalytic atmosphere of acceptance. Such an environment is supposed to allow the client to get in touch with the innate resources within himself for successfully dealing with life and developing self-esteem.2. Maslow, Abraham: The term "self-actualization" has been popularized by this man. The underlying assumption is that man is basically good and has within himself all he needs to develop his full potential to be a worthwhile individual; i.e., to self-actualize. Maslow is also noted for developing a hierarchy of motivational needs, including both physiological and psychological ones. The physiological were more primary in his thinking.3. Frankl, Viktor: He is the father of "logotherapy," an existential approach to counseling. Maladjustment is seen as an attempt to establish some meaningfulness to one's existence. We are motivated primarily by a desire for identity. Clients are urged to formally establish a personal set of spiritual and ethical values gleaned from their past experiences.4. May, Rollo: Another existentialist, May speaks of discovering what is known as a state of "satori." This is based upon the premise that one thing is as good as another and striving is useless -- i.e., be content with what you are and what you have. He sees no need for value judgments.5. Hiltner, Seward: This man has advocated applying non-directive techniques to pastoral counseling. He says that the pastor can best help by being an understanding and non-judgmental friend to the counselee, helping the latter "get in touch with himself."6. Mowrer, O. Hobart: The father of "integrity therapy," Mowrer believes that the solution to man's problems lies in the group milieu. The group provides all that is necessary to handle guilt (confession and restitution on the human level only), and then to develop a sense of self-worth.7. Perls, Fritz: This man is a the founder of "Gestalt" therapy. He believes conventional morals cut man off from freely experiencing life with his physical senses. He is rather directive in his approach to encouraging clients to get in touch with their "feelings" in the "now" and act according to them.8. Ellis, Albert: He has developed a counseling approach called "Rational Emotive Therapy" (RET). The counselor is to be very directive in attacking certain unproductive evaluations and behaviors of the client -- the counselor tells the client what to do and how to think.
II. Terms
A. Psychoanalytic
1. Libido: the instinctual drives of id which are the source of motivation and "psychic energy."2. Oedipus Complex: repressed attitudes of hostility of a child toward the parent of the same sex, and love (sexual desire) for the parent of the opposite sex, which may then lead to certain neurotic symptoms.3. Cathexes the investment of psychic energy in some person or thing which can serve as an object for fulfilling one of the various instinctual drives.4. Catharsis: the actual discharge of psychic energy associated with a previously suppressed cathexes, usually done as part of the "talk therapy."5. Ventilation: the discharge of pent-up emotional energy by striking out in some way -- in counseling, by verbally getting things off one's chest.6. Transference: the shifting of emotional energy from one person or object to the therapist in the counseling session -- taking an unpleasant past experience and reliving it in the presence of a warm, accepting therapist; thus, the superego is reduced in strength.7. Transactional Analysis: a modern day approach growing out of Freud's basic personality structures. (See Eric Berne)
B. Behavioristic
1. Operant Conditioning: a form of learning in which the correct response (or approximations to it) is selectively reinforced and supposedly becomes more likely to occur.2. Desensitization: a process by which reactions to traumatic experiences are reduced in intensity by repeatedly exposing the individual to them in mild form, either in reality or in fantasy.3. Operationalism: a movement to insist that all definitions in the study of human behavior be linked to observational data; the behavior is to be explained in terms of the operations evoking it.4. Parsimony (principle of): the most basic (simple) of two hypotheses should always be accepted: i.e., explanations of human behavior are to be void of abstract concepts such as "superego," "will" and "self."5. Hedonism: idea that man is motivated primarily by a pleasure/pain principle.
C. Humanistic
1. Support: the attempt to maintain a person at his present manner of functioning through listening and showing the client "acceptance."2. Self-actualization: the realization of one's full potential as a human being brought about be putting faith in one's self and doing whatever comes "natural."3. Client Centered Therapy: begun by Carl Rogers, which calls for the counselor to act as a reflector helping the client get in touch with himself, his potentials for self-actualization, and solving all his own problems.4. Directive Therapy: that in which the counselor instructs the client on what to do and how to change in accordance with the counselors own value system and adjustment to life.5. Existentialism: a view of man which emphasizes man's responsibility for himself and to himself for becoming a meaningful person as he himself defines this.
III. Additional Terminology/Abnormal Behavior
A. Neurosis: an abnormal reaction pattern marked by acute anxiety, which lowers one's efficiency, but which does not portray a break with reality. (Some examples are amnesias, multiple personality, phobias, neurasthenia, and hysterical paralysis.)B. Psychosis: abnormal reaction patterns which portray a lack of contact with reality and are usually characterized by delusions and hallucinations.
1. Schizophrenia: person displays a retreat from reality into an imaginary world -- thoughts appear irrational and often unconnected.
a. Simple: withdrawal from social contacts and a display of emotional indifference.b. Hebephrenic: regression to a silly, childish level of behavior where responsibility for coping may be avoided.c. Catatonic: characterized by behavioral states of motionlessness and/or great excitement.d. Paranoid: marked by persecutory delusions and/or visions of grandeur.e. Undifferentiated: others
2. Paranoid: marked by delusions of persecution and/or grandeur but without appearing to be out of contact with reality.3. Affective Psychotic Reactions: a severe disorder of mood accompanied by thought disturbances.
a. Depression: emotional state of dejection, feelings of worthlessness and guilt, and usually apprehension.b. Manic-Depression: characterized by prolonged periods of excitement and over-activity (manic) or by periods of depression and underactivity (depressive), or by alternations or mixture of the two.
4. Involutional Psychotic Reactions: (senility is an example)

Note: The operation of the multi-billion-dollar psychotherapy industry depends on the existence of a multitude of therapists. When the average person asks, "Who can help me solve my problems?" the automatic answer is, "You need to find a good therapist." From all walks of life, students enroll in a vast and highly variable sea of training curricula designed to supply the ever-enlarging demand for therapists and counselors. Most of these students do not realize that there is no standardized, agreed-upon, or proven curriculum for their chosen profession. By the time they do realize it, it often is of little concern to them or their customers. The lack of scientific support for insight-oriented psychotherapy has little impact on the throngs of individuals who pursue the revered mantle of "therapist." Nor does it seem to dissuade the troubled millions who seek their help.
While the therapist is the central figure in psychotherapy, the Bible's teaching on the "care of souls" describes no such central figure. It speaks only of exhorting and encouraging one another, of discipling the new believer, and of discipline within the church. In so speaking, Scripture presents a complete, authoritative, and sufficient theology of soul care. It is a theology both distinctive from and clearly opposed to that which has evolved in the practice of psychotherapy.
Scripture speaks of what we might call counseling, but it speaks against those who pretend to read minds and communicate with spirits, even for the supposedly noble purpose of helping another in distress. It urges those of us who follow Christ to know and use God's Word, to care for fellow believers, and to confront sin in those for whom we show that care. The church is to rebuke, train, encourage, and generally disciple those who are troubled or are going astray. To do this is one of the ways we "love one another" (I John 4:7). To fail to do this, or to substitute human wisdom for God's revealed wisdom, is to fail to love.
This stands in contrast to most "Christian therapists," who have taken on not only the fundamental doctrines of the secular insight-oriented psychotherapy industry, but also its practices and trappings. Among these counselors who characterize themselves as "Christian," all too often we find: (1) the claim to possess the secret knowledge of an elite corps, along with the use of a vocabulary so elusive and complex that an aura of sheer magic surrounds it, (2) credentials framed on the wall, and (3) fifty-minute therapy sessions, after which they charge fees for what should be considered discipling. These counselors move within the church, more as people possessing secret knowledge than as loving church leaders fighting the good fight.
Quite apart from these professional counselors, Christians have the following four sources available for counsel: the Holy Spirit, the Word of God, other Christians, and the organized church.

School-Based Family Counseling

School-Based Family Counseling is a new approach to helping children succeed at school and overcome personal and interpersonal problems. School-Based Family Counseling (SBFC) is an integrated approach which combines school counseling with family counseling in a broad systems approach. In its classic form, SBFC is conducted on site at the school and the School-Based Family Counselor is identified as a member of the school staff. This is in contrast to the traditional school counseling model, in which the counselor is not trained in family counseling, and the traditional family therapy model, in which the counselor is not trained to work in school systems. The School-Based Family Counselor is trained to work with children in the context of family, school, peer and community systems and using a family systems theoretical orientation. The specific skills required of the School-Based Family Counselor are shown in the table to the right.
The need for School-Based Family Counseling comes from the inadequacy of traditional school counseling and family counseling (agency based) models in dealing with children who are failing at school because of family problems. A survey of the student clients of School-Based Family Counselors in San Francisco (Gerrard, 1990) showed that over 85% of the children referred by teachers, parents, or self-referred had significant problems at home. The family problems included: marital discord, parents divorcing, custody problems with children, substance abuse, older siblings involved in gangs, sexual and physical abuse, parental neglect, single parents overwhelmed by economic and emotional problems, spouse abuse, and chaotic families with little parental control. School counselors, who typically have no training (or only one course) in family counseling, are not equipped to intervene effectively in these family problems. Family counseling is one of the more difficult forms of counseling and learning to do it well requires extensive training and supervision.
When school personnel determine that there is a family problem affecting a student, they often refer the family to a community mental health agency for family counseling. Most school principals are familiar with the phenomenon of families that are referred for family counseling, but do not go. Many of these "resistant" families are involved in a power struggle with school personnel and the families resent being sent for therapy because of the implicit message that the family (i.e. the parent) is sick or irresponsible. While seeing a therapist may be a sign of social status or trendiness with some people, with many, especially with minority families, therapy holds a stigma and "seeing a therapist" is viewed within these families' communities as a sign one is "crazy." Family therapists, who are themselves very familiar with the concept of triangulation (in which two family members form a coalition against a third family member who is often the family scapegoat or "identified patient"), are often perceived by parents as involved in a triangulation in which the school and the family therapist are in a coalition and "ganging up" on the parents.
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School-Based Family Counseling minimizes this triangulation because the School-Based Family Counselor is not seen as a "third party" but, rather, is viewed as part of the school system. Because the School-Based Family Counselor is the school counselor, she/he is viewed as an advocate for the school and the child. The focus of the counseling is on working with parents and families to help their children succeed in school. Going to a school to consult with the school counselor on how to help one's child succeed in school is something that many parents are willing to accept (especially if the counselor emphasizes that she/he needs the parents' help). This normalizes the counseling and reframes it in a way that destigmatizes coming for counseling. As the School-Based Family Counselor works with the parents and family to help the child, trust is built which permits the counselor to eventually work on other family issues affecting the child. School-Based Family Counseling is a multiculturally sensitive approach because it engages parents and families as partners with the School-Based Family Counselor in working to promote the success of the child at school.
In summary, School-Based Family Counseling has two key components: first, there is an integration of school counseling and family counseling models within a broad based systems meta-model that is used to conceptualize the child's problems in the context of all his/her interpersonal networks: family, peer group, classroom, school (teacher, principal, other students), and community. When a child is referred to the School-Based Family Counselor, the child's problem may involve one or all of these interpersonal networks. However, irrespective of the level of interpersonal network affected, the School-Based Family Counselor will relate positively with the child's family in order to reinforce positive change with the child.

Counseling Models

Choosing a therapist to fit your needs can become a confusing experience. You probably will hear some "counselor-eze"–the language of the counseling field–with which you are not familiar. Don't worry, you are in the majority. Please remember: ALWAYS ASK QUESTIONS WHEN YOU DO NOT UNDERSTAND. You have some important decisions to make, and it is important to make informed decisions! Christians need to be aware of the different approaches their therapist may use in their counseling. Likewise, pastors need to have some idea of the counseling models used by the therapists to whom they refer their members. This pamphlet is not meant to be an introductory course to psychological theory. Rather, it is intended to serve as a quick reference guide.
Counseling models have something to offer when used by a trained therapist. Some theoretical approaches work better than others, depending on your psychological or relationship needs. Some therapists have integrated several counseling models into their personal approach to counseling.
Traditional Counseling Models
Psychoanalytic: This model follows the teachings of Sigmund Freud. The emphasis is on the client's childhood experiences and relationships with the parents, and on the client's psychosexual development. Psychoanalysis seeks to uncover the secrets of the human psyche hidden in the unconscious mind. Psychoanalysts attempt to develop a relationship of transference with their clients, in which the clients relate to their analysts just as they did to their parents in childhood. During this process the client's defense mechanisms are identified and replaced with healthy behavior patterns. Psychoanalysis usually takes many years to complete with 1-3 sessions every week.Psychodynamic: This model does not follow Freud's idea of psychosexual development. However, stages of social development over the life span are still important in this model. Lifetime experiences are examined and defense mechanisms are identified. The client is helped in learning appropriate decision-making skills and behaviors. Psychodynamic therapy often involves long term therapy, but not as long as psychoanalysis.The psychoanalytic and psychodynamic approaches propose that our childhood experiences can strongly influence our reactions in the present without our even realizing it. This does not mean that our present behaviors are the fault of our parents, nor that our past determines our future. However, it does provide us with information necessary and helpful for changing the negative influences of our past.Client-centered or Rogerian: Carl Rogers believed that reality for the individual is the sum total of one's experiences and perceptions over a lifetime. According to Rogers, the goal of achieving one's potential can be attained in counseling provided that the therapist provides an atmosphere of genuineness, unconditional acceptance, and empathy. The counselors are non-directive in that they refrain from sharing their own beliefs, values, or opinions with the client. They offer neither approval nor judgment of the client's decisions. This also is long-term therapy.Cognitive: The basic concept of this model is that our feelings and behaviors are the result of the way we think. The cognitive therapist seeks to help the client identify cognitive distortions, irrational beliefs, or negative self-talk. The therapist helps the client replace these faulty thought processes with reality-based thinking, so that the client experiences healthy emotions and relationships. Cognitive therapy tends to be didactic in nature, directive in approach, and collaborative in process.Behavioral: This model is very "scientific" in nature in that the counselor and client only work on what can be observed and measured. A problem behavior is observed; a plan for changing it is implemented; progress is measured and reported. Behaviorists believe that individuals are shaped by their environment. Some behaviorists believe that we learn through conditioning. Others believe that we can learn by observing the behaviors of others and the consequences of those behaviors. In either case, the theory is that, if the antecedent or the consequence of the client's behavior is changed, then the behavior of the client will be changed as well.Cognitive-Behavioral: This approach is a blend of cognitive therapy and behavioral therapy. The client's thought processes are identified as well as the antecedents and consequences of the client's behavior. The clients are helped to make healthy changes in both their way of thinking and their behaviors. All three–cognitive, behavioral, and cognitive-behavioral–models are considered to be short-term therapy (i.e., 3-6 months, possibly more).Family Systems: This model views problems as belonging to the family rather than to any one individual. Each family member both influences and is influenced by the other members of the immediate family and the extended family. Sub-systems are identified within the family. Family of origin issues are studied. Genograms are used to chart behavior patterns and experiences across several generations of the extended family. Even though there may be a focus client, the entire family is involved in therapy, so that dysfunctional family interaction patterns can be changed. Family systems therapy is directive, collaborative, and medium-term (6-12 months, or more).Adlerian or S.T.E.P.: Adlerian therapy is the basis for the Systematic Training in Effective Parenting or S.T.E.P. program. It is believed that no two siblings have the same family experiences due to their different psychological positions in the family constellation. Mutual respect within the family is a primary goal of therapy. The family atmosphere is identified, along with the goals of the child's misbehavior. Parents are taught to modify their reactions to their children's misbehavior, to encourage and nurture appropriate behaviors, and to use logical and natural consequences to discipline their children. Therapy is short/medium-term.Both Family Systems and Adlerian family counseling offer many benefits in dealing with problems within the family context. No individual lives in a vacuum. Having an understanding of the family dynamics provides insight into the individual's view of himself or herself. Twelve-Step: This model is used by many self-help groups (e.g., Alcoholics Anonymous) and by most substance abuse treatment programs. The 12 steps of recovery begin with an admission of being powerless over one's addiction and a turning to a higher power of one's own choosing for help. The steps proceed through making an inventory of all wrongs, making amends for those wrongs, and helping others work through the 12 steps. Individuals are encouraged to take "one day at a time." Self-help groups do not involve a professional therapist, while treatment programs and therapy groups are led by a therapist. Length of participation is up to each individual–some attend group meetings for the rest of their lives.Medical Model: This model sees all mental disorders as being biological in nature; therefore, the primary treatment is medication. When medication is deemed necessary, it often is best to consult with a psychiatrist, because they have been trained in the prescribing and monitoring of psychotropic medications. Therapy often is used in conjunction with medical treatment. In fact, research shows that a combination of medication and therapy often produce the best results for the more severe disorders.Eclectic: This means that the therapist is choosing from several theoretical models as the basis for their approach to counseling. However, usually there is one theoretical model that forms a foundation upon which certain aspects of the other theories are added. Usually eclectic counselors practice short or medium-term therapy.Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: EMDR is often used with trauma victims. It is based on the neurophysiological hypothesis of "Accelerated Information Processing". It is suggested that we have an innate physiological processing system in our brain that normally processes disturbing input in an adaptive manner. A trauma interrupts this adaptive information process and the traumatic memories are stored in an isolated neuro network that cannot connect with the other more adaptive neuro networks. The use of directed eye movements together with cognitive reprocessing unblocks the traumatic information so that it can connect with adaptive thought processes, resulting in emotional relief and healing from the traumatic memories.Solution-Focused: This is more a framework for therapy than a theory or model. It is adaptable to brief therapy (3-6 sessions or more). A problem is identified in terms of behaviors. Exceptions to the problem behavior in the client's life are identified as providing opportunities for change. A goal for counseling is explored. A solution plan is chosen that uses the client's present strengths and resources. The focus is on what changes can be made; emphasis is on the reality of the present.ConclusionIt is important to be sure that your spiritual needs as a Christian will be served and/or respected in therapy. It is important that your therapist explain the theoretical approach that will be used in counseling. The more information you have, the better prepared you are in making decisions throughout your therapy experience. Remember that in all things God's Word is the final authority to which all else, including counseling models, must submit.

DEMOCRACY, GOOD GOVERNANCE AND THE RULE OF LAW IN UGANDA

The struggle for the rule of Law, which has its roots in democratic values, and respect for human rights did not drop suddenly nor was it just granted as a favour by benevolent people or governments. It is a result of accumulated struggles. Some visible others silent; some armed and others peaceful.
Rule of Law can only be brought about and sustained by an enlightened population that ensures that there is enlightened leadership. Let us look at the 1995 Constitution. There were other Constitutions but the 1995 piece had the broadest consultations, debates by democratically elected people for that purpose. It took a long time to debate and complete.
The safest guarantee of any public officer is security of tenure. MPs are secure in Parliament for the whole five years. Parliament cannot be dissolved. There was an attempt during the last major surgery on the Constitution to give the President powers to dissolve Parliament but it failed. Secondly, Parliament has a lot of leeway in deciding when to convene and decides its own business.
In some countries the executive can keep Parliament in recess for long in order to avoid it convening when certain crucial things are happening. Parliament also has powers to vet Presidential appointments and even has powers to impeach a President. Therefore the executive powers of the President are limited compared to the 1967 Constitution where the President had powers to appoint even parish chiefs and, a Minister had powers to appoint all district councils.
The second provision critical for the rule of law is the independence of the Judiciary. The Judges have security of tenure, and a well set out retirement age. Whether Judges have used this security of tenure in exercising their judicial mind is not for me to judge today.
The third and the fourth is the provision for the Human Rights Commission and the office of the Inspector General of Government respectively.
The shortcomings are: First, the Constitution has been in place for a relatively short time. Second, institutions are still young. In some cases the same people have not yet changed, a critical part in institution building.
Third, most critical institutions are not yet adequately facilitated in form of the requisite resources both in terms of manpower and finance. In terms of the Constitution and broad policy, advances have been made in:
The field of women participation and involvement.
Broadening both formal and informal education at primary, secondary and tertiary.An enlightened women folk and an educated and economically well-off population, are critical in advancing Democracy and the rule of law, checking the activities of governments and demanding respect for laws.
Another relevant issue is that all political parties are generally weak, especially the opposition parties in terms of infrastructure, resources and policy development to which party leaders should adhere. The opposition parties are further constrained by administrative harassment and occasionally open hostility by the very organs that are supposed to administer the law impartially.
Even the party in power is not as organized as it appears in terms of independent resources, adequate personnel and party policy. It is saved by leaning on the State. However, its members are constrained, except that the State organs of coercion have not yet focused on them. But it is a question of time.
Flashback: the bush war
There are crucial observations I wish to make before we comment on where Uganda is heading. First, Ugandans liberated themselves through various political organisations and other instruments. The critical instrument was through the original NRM as a liberation instrument. It is the people who sheltered the struggle, gave their children as fighters, food, information and support. The people were yearning for a change. That is why the NRM/NRA was sheltered in Luwero and Rwenzori. The people's yearning for change, for freedom, for security, was at the centre.
That is why the penetration of the movement had difficulties in other parts of the country especially the north, if it was just a question of guns. We did not carry out a good study, take into account all aspects of the terrain and adjust one's approach accordingly. So the people of Uganda are the owners of the peace that is enjoyed in the larger part of the country. It is a result of a concerted and collective effort. It was not granted or a gift from some people to whom we should forever be grateful. And it is the people to demand and fight for peace and rule of Law to prevail through out the country. Freedom is never a gift or a grant. He, who giveth, can also taketh. It is sweated for.
overnments can never grant rule of law and other rights. They can only observe them. The current NRM party is very different from the Movement in terms of policy, outlook, substance, ideology character, composition and attitude. The only thing in common is the name and its chairman. Besides, one belonged to the Movement system and the others to the multiparty political system.


Ecomomic policies
My second observation is that, for the rule of law to prosper, you need economic prosperity, gainful employment and a good standard of living. To achieve this, the State policies on this and resources available should be open to all for competition for the allocation on well-known criteria. Areas critical to pull the country out of poverty should be debated and agreed upon and be known to all.
For example, on industrialisation, should priority be textile industry, leather technology, and machine manufacturing or sugarcane expansion? Once agreed upon, those capable can apply and the most competent get the resources. They are monitored by a competent team ensuring the rules are followed and money properly used and paid back for the next in line to access.

AFRICA'S PROBLEMS

The African perspective
Africa is the second largest continent and the second most populous continent on the planet with over 800 million people in 54 countries. In the last 30 years, Africa is the only continent which has experienced widespread growth in poverty. By 2000 half the worlds'poor were in Africa compared to 10% in 1970. 3
The problems in Africa have been traced by many to centuries of neglect and
exploitation first by the colonial powers and later by the repressive regimes. The effect of environmental factors, like irregular weather patterns, droughts, disease and crop infestations cannot be discounted. Infrastructure established in the colonial times are geared to exploit the resources of the interior for export. But it has also been a human failure. European style political systems have not been successful in fostering national identities in individual countries because they were incompatible with the great diversity of culture and customs.
I think South Africans are very hard on themselves," Archbishop Desmond Tutu replied when I asked him — the single most truly non-racial person I know — whether he thought South Africans were making progress towards becoming a rainbow nation.
Overcoming differences
He had just returned from a church conference in Germany, where he was shocked by the attitudes that still separate the western and eastern sectors of that country.
"Here are people who are of the same ethnic group, who speak the same language — and yet, they are still very far from being reconciled," the archbishop said.
"And here we are, with our many races and ethnic groups and our 11 official languages. I think it's amazing that we have the level of stability that we have. Look at Northern Ireland, look at Yugoslavia. We could so easily have gone that way."
But we should not have unrealistic expectations, Tutu warns. It will take time to build a sense of national unity across such a wide spectrum of diversity — with such a history of conflict.
Cohesive society
But he is encouraged by his experiences as head of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, where he witnessed many remarkable acts of personal forgiveness. "I think we are going to make it," he said. "The world needs a South Africa that has succeeded."
What is the measure of success? It is a matter of inculcating a culture of mutual respect and tolerance.
Integration
The differences of race, color, culture, of the religious and the secular, of different perspectives and worldviews will all remain.
But as a society, we must learn to contain them within a broad entente and hopefully infuse all with a transcendent sense of common nationhood.
To mix the metaphors, the rainbow nation must be a mosaic society — not a melting pot. Like Desmond Tutu, I believe South Africans are learning that. We have made considerable progress along the rocky road from institutionalized racism to mutual tolerance.
We have made progress in other ways, too. A decade ago, we were not only racially divided and locked in social conflict.
Problems galore
We were also in a fiscal mess. We were politically and economically, even psychologically, isolated in a globalizing world, inflation and interest rates were sky-high, our businesses were inefficient and uncompetitive — hiding behind high protective tariffs — and economic growth had been in decline for years.
Today, all that has changed. Our apartheid society has become integrated across the board, from schools to workplaces to boardrooms — and even bedrooms.
Progressive change
We have a functioning multi-party democracy with regular free, fair and peaceful elections. It is underpinned by the world's most progressive constitution and protected by perhaps the world's finest panel of judges in the Constitutional Court.
Economically, too, South Africa is transformed. The economy has averaged 3% growth a year over that decade.
Growth is projected to average 3.6% from 2003 to 2006. It has stayed above the international average through the post-9/11 global recession — and it has shown the least degree of volatility of all emerging economies since 1994. It is in far better shape than the Latin American giants of Brazil and Argentina.
Challenges ahead
But daunting problems remain. Despite the improvements, the economy is still too sluggish to get the country on the high road to real development.
Unemployment is high, the skills level is low, there is a huge wealth gap, crime persists, foreign investment reaches only a meager 1% of GDP — and the AIDS pandemic is inflicting great tragedy on the population.
Regional troubles as well
Although the wars in Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo are ending, Zimbabwe continues to blight the region so that the neighborhood remains bad. How to tackle these problems is the challenge that faces us in the decade ahead.
South Africa's problems are dialectical. They interact with each other and feed off one another. Each of the critical issues has powerful implications for the others.
Poor education leads to a low skills level, which deters investment, which slows growth, which aggravates unemployment, which increases the crime rate, which deters investment — and so on.
Somehow, there must be a dynamic intervention in that process to reverse its cycle. An improved educational system would do it, and much attention is being given to that. But that is a slow road.
Focus on education
It takes 21 years and nine months to produce a new skilled worker. And first, you must produce a new corps of skilled teachers in the face of competition for their skills from much better paying occupations. Something faster is needed.
I think South Africa needs to modify its neo-liberal approach. It is not working for us, and it has not worked for a number of Latin American and East European countries, which have had slow and volatile growth.
Unique situation
The lesson is that one-size-fits-all formulae are no good — whether they emanate from Washington or pre-perestroika Moscow.
Economic jackets, strait or otherwise, must be tailored to fit individual circumstances — as the more successful examples of India, China and Vietnam have shown.
This does not mean South Africa should abandon its Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) policy or undertake a radical change of course.
But some modifications are needed to meet our special circumstances.
Double-decker economy
The crux of the problem is that South Africa has a double-decker economy — its first-world sector and its third-world sector. And what is working for those on the upper deck of this economic bus is not working for those on the lower deck. So unemployment is increasing and the wealth gap is widening.
It is a question of skills. The new globalized economy places a premium on skills. Those at the top of the bus have skills, while those on the lower deck do not. Which means that while those on the upper deck are prospering, growing numbers of those down below are unemployed — and rapidly becoming unemployable.
Growing economic divide
And if nothing is done about it, South Africa faces the socially dangerous prospect of this unemployment being repeated every generation. The children of the unemployed will themselves be unemployable. There is a further troubling feature to this double-decker bus. Those on the top deck are a multi-racial group.
It used to be a whites-only deck, but now it is integrated. They are all getting on pretty well, working together, making money together, their kids going to the same schools and universities. It is a rainbow deck.
But those down below are nearly all black, just the odd pinched face of a poor white here and there. And another thing: There is no stairway from the lower deck to the upper one. If you are unskilled, you cannot climb up to the top of the bus.
Two-pronged strategy
A single neo-liberal macroeconomic policy, which is what South Africa has, is insufficient to deal with this dual economy. It may be good for the skilled sector, but not for the unskilled. What is needed is a two-pronged strategy to cater to the different needs of both.
The developed sector must be encouraged and energized to build on the good start it has made. It is this sector that will attract the foreign investors.
Where the real work needs to be done
But the unskilled sector, which is far larger, needs a different set of strategies — not only for humanitarian reasons, though those are important enough.
The test remains to draw them into the economy from which they are now excluded. Only then can they begin to contribute their huge numbers to South Africa's growth — and also build a stairway to the top.
What South Africa needs, I believe, is a state-driven public works program on the scale of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, which would build vital infrastructure that is big enough to capture the public imagination and energize the nation.
New Deal
This New Deal project could be combined with on-the-job skills training to help the workers find other jobs afterwards and uplift the general skills level of the country.
It would reestablish the dignity and satisfaction of work for a large sector of the population now afflicted by the demoralization and other harmful psychological effects of unemployment.
A trickle-up effect
But the lower deck also needs financial help to improve themselves. This includes recognizing the double value of the new South Africa's massive provision of housing for the black community.
It also includes the need for a major program to asses and grant legal title for the land and shacks occupied by millions living in informal settlements.
The South African government's macro-economic policies are indeed praiseworthy and the top of the bus is doing well. But there is no trickle-down effect.
We need strategies for the lower deck and if those masses can be better mobilized, I believe there will in fact be a trickle-up effect that will boost the entire economy.

SECTARIANISM: THE FALLACY ABOUT TRIBALISM IN UGANDA

The independence celebration and open expression at the Queens dale Tavern in Toronto was a stimulating occasion. In an open forum free flowing expressions on ways to a better Uganda were made between gulps of beverages. My expression was in response to the catch word “tribalism” in response to an articulate expression by a brilliant young Ugandan law student at UoT. In this article I would like to expand on the subject following what others contributed.
Outright, I am one who will readily call for substituting the word tribe with a more politically acceptable term like ethnic identity. My rejection of the word arises not from militancy or denial but true understanding of what it connotes. Way back Prof. Musa Mushanga pointed to a class of his students that a tribe by definition is a group of savage families under a chief. In fact the Oxford dictionary concurs but preferring to refer to a group of primitives. Think about it, ethnicities numbering over 6 million like the Zulu, Igbo, Yoruba etc are tribes, but the term is never used to describe the Dutch, the Corsicans, the Basque or any one of the several small ethnic groups in Europe. No scholar refers to the Welsh, Irish, Scottish and English as the tribes of the United Kingdom.
Regardless of its political correctness, the reference to tribalism in Uganda as the root cause of problems is a dubious theory advanced by quasi western pundits then unfortunately adopted by many of us as truth. Many of our own scholars have subscribed to the notion. In fact a good dissection of ‘tribalism’ in Uganda may jolly well be a fallacy. In my view what is observed as tribalism is an external manifestation of a fundamental problem – totally nothing to do with individual ethnicities. It is an expression of a problem – not the problem itself.
In my view the malady ( one wonders if it is linked to cultural dynamics ) is incipient, malignant sectarian indulgence. Sectarianism is the practice of identifying and being pre-occupied with differences than with similarities. Sectarianism is a dynamic notion and ranges from race down to sibling friction. In its most basic it is summarized by the saying, “ me and my cousin against the neighbour, but me and my brother against the cousin after which it is me against my brother “. Sectarianism feeds on any one of so many contributing factors. Scarcity of resources and deprivation in general are among key contributors. Sectarianism has been ceased upon and promoted by opportunists as a very effective means of control and manipulation. The policy of “divide and rule “ was an effective colonization tool. Prior to Idi Amin, Nubian was more like a clan than a tribal affiliation. The Nubian in Kabarole closely associated himself with the boys and girls of Fort Portal and not the Muganda Nubian of Bombo. I know for a fact that nearly every F.P boy who approached the then Minister of Commerce Noor Mohammed was well taken care of as a brother. Hussein Sebbi one time protégé of Amin always used the expression "son of my mother" to refer to Batoro.
To inflict harm, communities and people have rallied to any one of so many identities to advance their justification. Race difference, gender, religion and social status have all been used in fomenting discord and brewing strife. In Africa we have seen it all. Those old enough to remember independence celebrations will remember cousin maiming cousin’s cows because of different political or religious affiliation. We knew of incidents of relatives destroying livestock or property in retribution to membership in DP or UPC. Now if a Mukiga catholic dude can chop off the adder of a cousin’s cow because it is a UPC one, how much more harm can such a person do to Okello who is Moslem, darker skinned, taller, and speaks a strange language! Clearly it is not his ethnic instincts at work but his intolerance for difference and the greater the index of difference the more sinister the harm such a person is likely to inflict.
The strife and self destruction witnessed by the Somali people is persuasive to the conclusion that too much attention continues to be paid to the symptom (tribalism = fever) rather than the identification of the disease and its eventual remedy. Why and how was it possible for a nation of one race, one tribe, one religion, one language to fracture, disintegrate and self destruct so effectively? In fact they managed this feat with very little external assistance!! Do we blame clans as the culprit? No way, give me a break. In fact these creative people having failed to find a visible viable seed of difference, reached out for their colonial segmentation and broke out along the seams of the Italians and the English divide. Somalia against Somaliland! It does not get better than this!
Why does Haiti continue to this day to exist in turmoil nearly 200 years since independence? There are no tribes in Haiti and religion does not seem to have been a factor! Why do inner city youths in Washington, Detroit and Los Angeles continue to rally around gangs and steadily self brutalize outside of race motivated action? Why do the Christian inhabitants of Ireland continue the hatred perpetrated along sector difference? One wonders whether an elusive malignant cultural dynamic may be at play!!
In the Uganda of independence in 1960, Obote with a couple of Langis was surrounded by people from every corner of Uganda, in fact his strength did not come out of Lango but Buganda. Ben Kiwanuka on the other hand had strong and loyal support from Acholi not Buganda. When the dreaded Idi Amin came to power, the people dancing in the streets of Kampala, were not just West Nilers or Nubians. It was not the Banyankole who made it possible for Yoweri Museveni to succeed in his mission. Even the dreaded Joseph Kony has not unlished his onslaught on to the Bahima and Baganda - his atrocities go beyond ethnic monopoly. So then why has this notion of tribalism persisted?
If I could use a medical model, I would equate the relationship between sectarianism and tribalism with that between symptom and disease. In its simplest, fever is an illness and so is tribalism but neither of them is disease. They are symptoms or detectable manifestations of an underlying cause. Both fever and tribalism can do a lot of damage and even debilitate and arrest the functioning of a system ( body or country). Both can be moderated and their effects can be neutralized by applying temporary remedial measures. If the strategy is to get over the complications arising, that is fine; however to cure the disease a totally different treatment is imperative. More accurately unless the nature of the disease is understood, there is no way of prescribing an effective cure. Our experience with malaria and now HIV clearly illustrate my point.
One approach to control of disease and boost health is through the promotion of measures which enhance the ability to resist attack. Among these measures is immunization and enhanced diet. The same model I believe can apply to the onslaught of sectarianism. It would be presumptuous for me to set out to prescribe a regimen of treatment. I am not an expert on these matters however I can safely guess that one enhancer has got to be improved wealth, welfare and literacy. An atmosphere of deprivation cannot but breed anxiety and greed and in turn sectarianism. In the medical model, immunization is an indulgence for health professionals while there is no restriction on indulgence to improve diet. Along the same model I believe that while the onus is on politicians to immunize the masses against sectarianism, it is incumbent upon all of us to play a role in planting the seeds of a good social diet.
Processes of change can take place either by evolution or revolution. The latter is energy intensive while the former is time intensive but evolutionary processes tend to stand the test of time better. Revolution requires a detonator while evolution requires a catalyst. A catalyst is never spent whereas a detonator is spent. Is it possible that we have paid too much attention to event triggered need to change at the top while neglecting seeding the catalysts for evolutionary processes of change at the bottom? Evidence will show that in Uganda a great deal of attention has been paid to changes at the top and each time such change took place the firewood was allowed to burn out. The result is that for 40 years we have been periodically scrambling for matches to relight the fire! Why not have a strategy of keeping the ashes warm and the embers alive? We need to do more as individuals to start the evolutionary process in every child in the village and town of appreciating what has created great and model nations. There is need for all those who subscribe to a formal religious club of followers (church, temple, mosque ) to play a role in fostering a better political life here on earth tomorrow in addition to their prime motive of the life hereafter.
The saying that it is futile to teach an old dog new tricks may jolly well apply to old politicians and leaders. How many primary or secondary schools exercise the democratic practice of choosing school prefects and encourage their change if they do not perform? The ten commandments do not pronounce the need for a sense of responsibility, the respect of public property, or patriotism as is required in paying tax. We miss out on all these essential foundations of a viable democracy as flexible young minds and yet we expect deprived adults to head government departments and to continue living in tin houses! Give me a break! Cruelty breeds cruelty and that an abused child often becomes an abusive adult If we deny an elementary or high school student the ability to express dissent and if dissent is rewarded by unfair and cruel punishment, we clearly prepare that individual to practice the same tomorrow as a minister of government. What we need to do even more than scramble for a chance to change the rigid minds of the occupants of the top 20 positions in the country is to strive to change the plastic mentality and outlook of the several million at the bottom. In a decade or two they will be the pool for fishing the top twenty. They will bring a different ethic to Government ministries and corporations. It is from one of those that an occupant of State House will emerge. One who will implement and preside over ideals which we who remember independence celebrations hope for but may not be lucky enough to live in our lifetime.

EMPOWERMENT, CITIZENSHIP PARTICIPATION AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Empowerment

Empowerment is a construct shared by many disciplines and arena: community development, psychology, education, economics and studies of social movements and organizations among others. How empowerment is understood varies among these perspectives. In recent empowerment literature, the meaning of the term empowerment is often assumed rather than explained or defined. Rappoport (1984) has noted that it is easy to define empowerment by its absence but difficult to define in action as it takes on different forms in different people and contexts. Even defining the concept is subject to debate. Zimmerman (1984) has stated that asserting a single definition of empowerment may make attempts to achieve it formulaie or prescription like, contradicting the very concept of empowerment.

A common understanding of empowerment is necessary, however, to allow us to know empowerment when we see it in people with whom we are working and for program evaluation. According to Bailey (1992) how we precisely define empowerment within projects and programs will depend upon the specific people and context involved.

As a general definition, however, we suggest that empowerment is a multi-dimensional social process that helps people gain control over their own lives. It is a process that fosters power (that is, the capacity to implement) in people, for use in their own lives, their communities, and in their society, by acting on issues that they define as important.

We suggest that three components of our definition are basic to any understanding of empowerment.

Empowerment is multi-dimensional: It occurs within sociological, psychological, economic, and other dimensions. Empowerment also occurs at various levels such as individual, group, and community.

Empowerment by definition, is a social process, since it occurs in relationship to others.

Empowerment is a process that is similar to a path or journey, one that develops as we work through it. Other aspects of empowerment may vary according to the specific context and people involved, but these (multi-dimensional, social and as a process) remain constant. In addition, one important implication of this definition of empowerment is that the individual and community are fundamentally connected.

Interconnection of individuals and community Wilson (1996) pointed out that recently, more researchers, organizers, politicians and employers recognize that individual change is a prerequisite for community and social change and empowerment. This does not mean that we can point the finger(s) at those with less access to power, telling them that they must change to become more like “us” in order to be powerful/successful. Rather, individual change becomes a bridge to community connectedness and social change.

To create change we must change individually to enable us to become partners in solving the complex issues facing us. In collaborations based on mutual respect, diverse perspectives, and a developing vision, people work toward creative and realistic solutions. This synthesis of individual and collective change is our understanding of an empowerment process. We see this inclusive individual and collective understanding of empowerment as crucial in programs with empowerment as a goal. It is in the critical transition or interconnection, between the individual and the communal or social, that programs such as ‘people empowering people’, can be invaluable for people and communities.

Community empowerment therefore involves individuals acting collectively to gain greater influence and control over the determinants of health and the quality of life in their community, and is an important goal in community action for health.



Underlying principles:
The core principles focus attention on the “community” aspects of community benefit, and on the health system’s role in a lager web of organizations and people responsible for helping to ensure the public’s health. In summary, the principles are:

1. Emphasize disproportionate unmet health-related needs.
2. Emphasize primary prevention
3. Build a seamless continuum of care
4. Build community capacity; and
5. Emphasize collaborative governance.

Areas of concern may include:
(a) Health- immunization, mortality rate, communicable diseases i.e,, eye diseases, HIV/AIDs, diarrhoera and malnutrition could easily be dealt with by use of team work. Also access to safe water and sanitation

(b) Agricultural support
(c) Having access roads
(d) Revolving Credit Fund
(e) Coordination and management of all social activities. With empowerment all these
can run smoothly and can bring about positive change in our communities.

With empowerment all these can run smoothly and can bring about positive change in our communities.

N.B. In conclusion, we see empowerment as a multi-dimensional social process that helps people gain control over their own lives. It is a process that fosters power in people for use in their own lives, their communities, and their society by acting on issues that they define as important. People are taught skills and knowledge that will motivate them to take steps to improve their own lives – to be empowered.

Citizenship Participation:

Effective citizenship means, at its simplest, members of local communities being ready, willing and able to get involved in local issues. This is not simply about people having the opportunity to participate, but also about possessing the skills, knowledge and confidence they need to take part.

Harnessing the insights, perspectives and talents of local people can improve services, the quality of democracy, and the legitimacy of council leadership. There can benefit is to participants, too. As well as contributing to improving the quality of life of their community, getting involved in local affairs can provide individuals with opportunities to acquire training, skills and give them pathways into education and employment.

In recognition of these potential benefits, policy-makers at local and national level have taken an increasing interest in encouraging people to re-connect with government and participate in local decisions. In recent years local authorities have made huge strides in engaging with the public. Large numbers have adopted residents and user surveys, citizens panels, citizens juries, focus groups, neighborhood and area forums, to mention but just a few. E.g. when 255 of the tax collected at Sub County levels is brought back down to villages. It is up to the members within the given villages to decide how to spend. If any projects are to be conducted in communities, community participation is greatly called for. But simply providing opportunities for the public to participate only goes so far. Despite using a growing range of consultation and participation techniques, more than half of residents believe that their local council has not consulted them in the past year. And there is much more that can be done to draw marginalized and vulnerable people to local decision-making. It is therefore important to find new ways of increasing people’s capacity or desire to become more involved. This can be best done by governments, councils or any authority in consultation with professionals who can help put in place effective approaches.

· Effective communication – giving people the information and knowledge they need to understand local decision – making structures, but also taking steps to simplify the knowledge required, either by bringing together information on opportunities to engage or by combining opportunities into a single process.

· Capacity building – training and practical support that strengthen the existing skills, knowledge and confidence of individuals, community groups and council personnel to get involved in decision-making and develop solutions. This could include skills in communication, diversity issues, conflict resolution or community leadership.

Promoting cultural change – This means cultivating a belief in the value of collective action to address social problems and improve the quality of life; for councils, it means learning to operate in ways that are responsible to citizen input, and showing participants that their involvement is valued.

Address the wider context. It is critical that local authorities pay attention to wider issues which may affect people’s propensity to get involved, such as the condition of the voluntary sector and community groups in their area, race relations and the representation of marginalized groups on decision-making forums.

Partnership working: Promoting effective citizenship requires genuine collaboration between councils and a range of other public, private, voluntary and community sector organizations. As part owners of the citizenship agenda, schools, N.G.Os, and local community groups can all make significant contributions. When all these different organizations work in partnership, there is more scope for improving practice by learning from each other, and to deliver more effective learning opportunities. Thus, shared processes of organizational learning stands to be an important factor for effective citizenship.



Building on what’s already there:
In designing learning opportunities for citizenship, councils can usefully start from where people are at in terms of their life situation, experience, confidence and interest, and allow them to shape their own learning experiences. Recognize where particular communities already have assets and skills and build upon these.

In designing citizenship education activities, practitioners should remember that existing networks, umbrella groups and community organizations can provide knowledge and contacts, and maybe well placed to deliver information and capacity building to their members.

DEVELOPMENT (COMMUNITY)
Community development is a direct byproduct of empowerment and effective citizenship participation. Where communities are empowered and citizenship participation encouraged, high levels of community development are achieved.

Local action planning:- any process whereby the members of a community work together to produce a plan, especially insetting priorities for community strategies and local development frame works. Such activities offer a focused setting for the development of skills, confidence and experience indecision making processes at local level building the capacity for neighborhood governance.

Qualitative change:
In the end, effective citizenship is about better democratic outcomes, whether that is achieving social change, challenging inequalities or promoting sustainable communities. Measuring whether people feel more empowered can require qualitative information, including careful assessment of people’s individual development as well as tracking participants to assess how far they and the groups they represent are accessing power structures.

Tracking personal development staff working closely with sections of the public maybe able to identify signs of personal learning as individuals progress from simply participating in initiatives, to facilitating events and workshops, to becoming peer educators or deepening their involvement in civic life in other ways. Staff involved in user forums may be able to report on the quantity, social complexions and quality of public involvement in their service.

In summary community development cannot be enhanced without empowerment and citizenship participation. These are two key factors which must come into play if any development is to be experienced anywhere. It is now the role of those aware of this fact to educate others about the same and make sure that development in our local communities is highly promoted, for a “health” living in this world.


2
The Difference Between Management And Leadership
Leadership and management are two notions that are often used interchangeably. However, these words actually describe two different concepts. In this section, we shall discuss these differences and explain why both terms are thought to be similar.
Leadership is a facet of management
Leadership is just one of the many assets a successful manager must possess. Care must be taken in distinguishing between the two concepts. The main aim of a manager is to maximise the output of the organisation through administrative implementation. To achieve this, managers must undertake the following functions:
· organisation
· planning
· staffing
· directing
· controlling
Leadership is just one important component of the directing function. A manager cannot just be a leader, he also needs formal authority to be effective. "For any quality initiative to take hold, senior management must be involved and act as a role model. This involvement cannot be delegated."
In some circumstances, leadership is not required. For example, self motivated groups may not require a single leader and may find leaders dominating. The fact that a leader is not always required proves that leadership is just an asset and is not essential.
Differences In Perspectives
Managers think incrementally, whilst leaders think radically. "Managers do things right, while leaders do the right thing." [2]. This means that managers do things by the book and follow company policy, while leaders follow their own intuition, which may in turn be of more benefit to the company. A leader is more emotional than a manager . "Men are governed by their emotions rather than their intelligence" . This quotation illustrates why teams choose to follow leaders.
"Leaders stand out by being different. They question assumption and are suspicious of tradition. They seek out the truth and make decisions based on fact, not prejudice. They have a preference for innovation."

Subordinate As A Leader
Often with small groups, it is not the manager who emerges as the leader. In many cases it is a subordinate member with specific talents who leads the group in a certain direction. "Leaders must let vision, strategies, goals, and values be the guide-post for action and behaviour rather than attempting to control others."
When a natural leader emerges in a group containing a manager, conflict may arise if they have different views. When a manager sees the group looking towards someone else for leadership he may feel his authority is being questioned.
Loyalty
Groups are often more loyal to a leader than a manager. This loyalty is created by the leader taking responsibility in areas such as:
· Taking the blame when things go wrong.
· Celebrating group achievements, even minor ones.
· Giving credit where it is due.
"The leader must take a point of highlighting the successes within a team, using charts or graphs, with little presentations and fun ideas"
"Leaders are observant and sensitive people. They know their team and develop mutual confidence within it"
The Leader Is Followed. The Manager Rules
A leader is someone who people naturally follow through their own choice, whereas a manager must be obeyed. A manager may only have obtained his position of authority through time and loyalty given to the company, not as a result of his leadership qualities. A leader may have no organisational skills, but his vision unites people behind him.

Management Knows How It Works
Management usually consists of people who are experienced in their field, and who have worked their way up the company. A manager knows how each layer of the system works and may also possess a good technical knowledge. A leader can be a new arrival to a company who has bold, fresh, new ideas but might not have experience or wisdom.
Conclusion
Managing and leading are two different ways of organising people. The manager uses a formal, rational method whilst the leader uses passion and stirs emotions. William Wallace is one excellent example of a brilliant leader but could never be thought of as the manager of the Scots!