UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN IS CRUCIAL FOR SOCIETAL ADVANCEMENT (CASE OF UGANDA) CHALLENGES AND LIKELY REMEDIES
SOCIETY
In a society both men and women share some mutual concerns or interests, a common objective or common characteristics. Usually a society is significant of interactions between individuals sharing some way of life and living in the same territory. However though, affiliate behavior and social bonding is essential components of human society, yet little is known of the neural circuitry regulating these complexes.
GENDER MAINSTREAMING
The term mainstreaming came from the objective to bring attention to gender equality into the mainstream of development activities (King, 2001). An important element in the mainstreaming strategy is the ambition to give attention to gender equality from the initial stages of processes so that there is potential to influence goals, strategies and resource allocations and thus bring about changes in policies, programmes and other activities and make a real difference to gender equality.
Mainstreaming involves taking up gender equality perspectives as relevant in analysis, data collection, and other activities, to ensure that all processes take into account the contributions, priorities and needs of the entire stakeholder group, women as well as men Goldin, Claudia, (1985), Before any decisions are taken in any area of societal development an analysis should be made of the current responsibilities and contributions of both women and men and the potential impact of planned processes and activities on women and men respectively.
The first step required is an assessment of the linkages between gender equality and the issue or sector being worked on, that is, to identify the gender implications of working on, for example, poverty elimination, decision-making and power, enterprise development, and all other areas. This involves understanding why promotion of gender equality is important from a human rights/social justice perspective as well as for achievement of all other development goals.
Secondly the opportunities for introducing gender perspectives need to be identified in the work-tasks undertaken.
Thirdly an approach or methodology has to be identified for successfully incorporating gender perspectives into these work-tasks in a manner, which facilitates influencing goals, strategies, resource allocation and outcomes.
This could include, for example, giving attention to gender perspectives in terms or reference and job descriptions. Institutional development, in terms of developing guidelines, utilizing gender specialists, providing competence development for all personnel, is also required to support gender mainstreaming.
UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN
In deed the understanding between men and women is crucial for societal advancement; this will be discussed in regard to the pre- colonial and post -colonial Ugandan setting.
PRE COLONIAL UGANDA
Traditionally, both the men and women were builders of a home. They were supposed to physically bring up their children in good moral behaviour and also ensure good health. This role was done right from the family level to the community level. Each individual took responsibility of each child even if it were not their biological child.
Punishment was given to children who misbehaved by whosoever found them misbehaving and this was normal as no misunderstanding would generate between the parents and who ever gave the punishment. This in a way exhibited societal advancement as desire for peace and harmony were ensured by the homebuilders by shaping behaviour in the community.
MARRIAGE
Marriage was a sharing between men and women. Marriage in itself portrays unity, which is an aspect of societal advancement. Ceremonies were made to jubilate the union of man and woman by the entire community. This is still experienced in the modern living were customary marriages are conducted and later church marriage. Marriage was a pact /commitment to one another in health, ideas and wealth. This institution was highly respected as divorce was not commonly heard of. Once a man and woman left there home, any misunderstanding was resolved by elders to restore the marriage.
WEALTH
Traditionally like todate, wealth was as sign of societal advancement. Wealth in itself was evidenced by the children one produced. For example among the Iteso the girl child was a source of wealth, the more girl children a couple had, the more wealth. Even the more women a man had the more prestigious he was in the community.
One has to work and earn money and pay that price. The able-bodied who idle away their time and look to others for theirs survival indeed exist as parasites and prove to be a burden to the society (Ayyar, 2006) which will look down on them. The kings and chiefs had more women than they could even want.
The number of animals one had also was significant of the riches he had. Like todate the societal advancement is also gauged by the level of acquisition of wealth. Parents also attained wealth from dowry got from their bride price of their daughters. Wealth was understood or greatly associated to men, more that it was to the women.
DIVISION OF LABOUR
Division of labour was also significant of societal advancement in the pre-colonial times
Among the Teso people tasks like building of shelter were entirely a responsibility of the men. Also they were the wealth bearers, provided security, took care of herds, hunted, they did repairs in the home, marketed the crops, planned for the family and home. While the women kept homes clean, brewed local beer, fed the children, cooked and washed the utensils, collected firewood. Both the women and men knew and understood what was expected of them as regards their sex/gender. Some of these tasks are still visible even todate because of the traditional elements associated to the tasks.
ART AND ENTERTAINMENT
It was entirely a mutual understanding that both men and women, participated in creative art and entertainment. In Uganda the many tribes have traditional dances, which both parties were involved in as a means of passing leisure time. Girls and boys were both initiated to these dances at an early stage/age. This understanding was based on the fact that joy experienced during the dances was an exciting contribution of both genders in a society that tended to advance.
CARE AND HOME PLANNING
Love and care was also eminent in the traditional setting. Both men and women loved and cared for their family needs such as shelter, clothing and food. It is common knowledge that food, clothing, and shelter are the three basic necessities of life. The very existence of a man depends on fulfillment of these vital needs (Ayyar, 2006) .The basic needs were a shared responsibility that had to be catered for based on understanding. Like todate advanced societies exhibit love and care for one another.
DATING AND RELATIONSHIPS
This requires an understanding from both parties. However initiation of the relationship was entirely left to the male. Female who sought to initiate this were seen as out casts to the society and were regarded a disgrace to the family and society among the Iteso people and also among many other societies in Uganda.
LEADERSHIP AND POWER
Leadership and power was predominantly placed in the authority of the male, this was seen in kings, chiefs, family heads. This understanding was based on the fact that the men were capable of taking control of situations as compared to the female who were regarded as inferior sex.
Women were not heard of in positions that seemed to be higher than that of the men.
POST COLONIAL UGANDA
In post colonial times the trend of societal advancement aspects kept changing because of the effects this period had on the people of Uganda, these were greatly due to the influence of the colonialists whose ways of life were different from the Africans Uganda in particular, their ways have seen then been assimilated as can be noted below;
SHARING OF REPONSIBILITIES
Women like men cultivate, they are income earners, own wealth, clean the homes, cook. These have both learnt to adjust to roles that used to be associated to only a particular gender. If the colonialists had not come to Uganda probably the traditional roles could still have been in placed to one gender. This coupled with women emancipation has made men and women perform any task as societal advancement is a contribution from both male and women. It was such a taboo in the African tradition to see men cooking as among the many Ugandan tribes this was associated to greed. Todate the desire for equality, nature of jobs has put a change to all the roles associated to a particular gender.
WOMEN CLUBS
In the name of societal advancement, women activists, women groups such as the mothers union under the Anglican Church, women micro finance institutions. Women have been emancipated to take charge of events thus creating a change in many sectors; family, leadership which many women head todate. These have been imparted with skills to earn incomes, rise to power, take charge of situations as contribution to the fast growing societal advancements.
CHRISTIANITY AND RELIGION
Todate the trend of events in Christianity, Islam and even traditional religion have changed. Many women have become pastors in the churches, Bishops in the Anglican Church even in the traditional religion where it was normally the men who were consulted or were mediators between man and the gods. All these are signs of societal advancement in the post colonial times that seem to be moving very fast as the opportunity is given to both gender
DECISION MAKING /PARITICIPATION
Women todate have a right and ability to negotiate the number of children they would like to have with their partners, which was very unlikely in the past. Societal advancement to date calls for preference for small families. Today family planning is discussed among the partners, as this may be a solution to rising expenses that arise in looking after many children depending on the given cost of living today. This was not heard of in the past, as many children were significant of wealth and power. To day the less children one has, the more comfortable life one may lead because of reduced expenses that could occur.
LEADERSHIP ROLES
Like men women are managers, political leaders, social leaders and even heads of the family, which was not heard of traditionally. Women are very significant figures in the society and take decisions on behalf of many institutions. For example the ex-vice president of the National resistance movement, (NRM) Dr. Specioza Wandira Kazibwe, the women ministers in the NRM government, members of parliament. Many leaders in the traditionally Ugandan setting/pre-colonial times were followers of the male leaders.
ENROLLMEMNT IN INSTITUTIONS
Men and women both enroll into institutions like army, police. Law and order are taken care of by both he gender. while in the traditional times men took charge of defending their homes and families thus protecting even the women. But todate both are eligible to providing security for one another. Women soldiers guard top government officials. Todate women are also obliged to attend military training sessions for instance ‘’muchakamckaka’’ in Kyankwanzi in Uganda.
NATURE OF DOWRY
Women now also contribute to the dowry that used to be entirely the responsibility of the men. The nature of the economy seeks for participation and involvement. Many women have contributed to this especially where the men they love and want to get married to are not financially able. This was very unheard of in Uganda in the pre-colonial times as this was a taboo. In other words this has become a shared responsibility
SUCCESSION/HIERS AFRTER DEATH
With the trends in the society women have become successors to their fathers after death. This used to be only for the male children. The girl child todate has been realized to have potential to succeed as effectively as the male child. They both have equal opportunity to education and exposure to the modern setting thus ability to take charge of given situations
CAREER DEVELOPMENT
The opportunities available todate favour both the male and female. Women can compete with men in fields of medicine, politics, socially. Nussbuam also agrees to this, during parliamentary elections a number of women earned them selves more votes that the men. There are also so many women doctors. The education system offers free education to both the girl and male child at primary and secondary school level under the universal primary education and universal secondary school education respectively (UPE AND USE) introduced in the national resistance movement government (NRM)
However in both the contexts in the pre and post colonial times the intimate relationship between men and women that enhances co creation of humanity is normally an understanding between men and women, this goes way back to the ancestral times of Adam and Eve. With out the two parties humanity would seize to being. This therefore enforces the need and importance for each gender for societal advancement.
CHALLENGES AND LIKELY REMEDY
Insipte of the interactions between men and women in both the pre colonial and post colonial times there are a number of upheavals that retard the understanding of men and women for societal development and can be discussed below;
TRADITIONAL ATTITUDE TOWARDS WOMEN
Traditionally women are still associated to roles such as cooking, looking after children and home care takers. This then favours discrimination against women. Men have always associated women to perform certain inferior tasks, which actually they can also do. So unless this attitude changes it will always hinder societal advancement. That is why there are more late comers to work among professionals on the female side than the men.
This can be rectified through sensitizations and awareness creation of both sexes as regards their contribution to society once traditional attitudes towards woks are not associated to a particular sex. Work shops, seminars and debates should be encouraged to foster change of attitude among women and men.
Women groups should also be encouraged to rise to advance the position of women in society.
FAILURE TO ADAPT TO CURRENT CHANGES
Men have totally found it hard to adapt to the changes entailed in societal advancement as regards roles and responsibilities associated to women A man for instance may find it awkward for his friends to find him washing dishes at home. Yet you may find that the nature of work his wife has is even more demanding than his thus giving him more free time than the woman. So unless men openly start to accept and participate in tasks, in regard to the changing societal trends then there would probably be less friction in tasks allocated to a particular gender.
However the remedy for this can be to frequently engage men in female related activites for instance saloon /hairdressing, chefs/cooks, although this is slowly rising in saloons and restaurants in Uganda respectively. More tasks associated to this should be prioritized for the men. This may be discriminative but allows more opportunity for the men to access it.
GENDER STEREOTYPING
Men and women have often stereotyped certain tasks and hardly given chance for one another to perform. For instance right from the biblical teachings that say that women should be submissive to their husbands. Women are even todate considered a weaker sex, for a reason I do not know. This can be rectified through empowerment of women. Thus todate there are women leaders, managers, women are breadwinners. Thus women are as equal as the men. Many men still find this not worthy accepting so unless this stops societal advancement may be hindered.
Another example that stereo types women is the initiation of relationships, today if a women started or initiated relation with a man she would still be perceived in a weird way so these traditional way of thinking must be erased especially with the women emancipation and freedom of right to do certain things.
RESOURCES
Many of the resources are concentrated in the hands of men. Right form the traditional times men own wealth at home, inherited it from their fathers. Disparities between men and women in basic rights, access to resources, and power to determine their own lives continue to exist in virtually all countries of the world.
Despite the great influx of women into the labor market, the gap between men's and women's wages has remained stable at 40 percent since 1950. Analysis of labor data suggests that this has occurred because women's educational attainment compared to men has declined. Recently, however, the wage gap has begun to narrow, and this will probably become a trend.
Not so many women are rich. You find that women inspite of their desire and plight to want to actively engage in societal advancement activites, are hindered by limited resources in their possession especially in the rural setting.
This can be addressed through ‘’Etandikwa’’ schemes of the NRM government, micro finance institutional support to women through trainings on income generating projects so that they have their own income sources. Thus alleviating poverty especially in rural communities.
ROLE OF COMMUNICATION
Many times women are misquoted thus crating a communication gap associated to the subject of confidence, for example, Tannen writes that because women tend to verbally downplay their expertise, what may look like lack of confidence on the part of women is a reluctance to appear boastful. When women say ‘’NO’’ sometimes they are assumed to mean ‘’YES’’, Well-developed listening skills ensure that the male, are able to distinguish between the words they hear and what they really want to hear.
SCHOOL REALTED GENDER BASED VIOLENCE
Girls’ education confronts many obstacles to the triptych of access, retention and success. Typically, these obstacles stem from family, cultural, social, educational, legal or political contexts and continue to loom as a serious threat to achieving the goals of Education for All. Among them, school related gender-based violence, whose educational and psychological consequences are extremely severe, seems to develop under the very taboo that envelops it.
Indeed, as the Secretary-General's in-depth Study on Violence against Women states, despite a growing mobilization of public actors, this kind of violence persists in all countries and represents a generalized violation of human rights and a major obstacle to the achievement of gender equality. This study highlights the problems of sexual harassment and violence towards girls and women that persist within societies and educational settings. This however that possess as a challenge to societal advancement.
Some of the remedies to this would include: Raising awareness among the stakeholders of international cooperation on the theme of school related gender-based violence and on gender equality in the education sector in general.
Identifying the role and the responsibility of the three main categories of stakeholders facing gender-based violence in schools, considering their expertise and testimony: 1) national and local public authorities; 2) civil society and NGOs; 3) teachers, educational personnel and teachers’ organizations.Also the Identification of good practices and conditions for sharing and scaling up good practices as a way forward for addressing school related gender-based violence.
HIV/AIDS RELATED ISSUES
This has also posed as a challenge as both genders are exposed. HIV infection is the most devastating new disease to have emerged in recent history. Although, worldwide, approximately as many women as men suffer from HIV, this aggregate figure conceals marked differences in the implications of the disease for men and women. Some of this result from biological differences in sex between men and women, but more result from socially defined gender differences.
Women are probably more susceptible than men to infection from HIV in any given heterosexual encounter, due to biological factors – the greater area of mucous membrane exposed during sex in women than in men; the greater quantity of fluids transferred from men to women; the higher viral content of male sexual fluids; and the micro tears that can occur in vaginal (or rectal) tissue from sexual penetration. Young women may be especially susceptible to infection. Effects of this have negatively impacted the societal advancement in Uganda and Africa as a whole as many of the labour force are dying to HIV/AIDS.
Gender norms may also have an impact on HIV transmission. For example, in many places, gender norms allow men to have more sexual partners than women, and encourage older men to have sexual relations with much younger women. In combination with the biological factors cited above, this means that, in most places where heterosexual sex is the main mode of HIV transmission, infection rates are much higher among young women than among young men.
Women may want their partners to use condoms (or to abstain from sex altogether), but often lack the power to make them do so.
Women (who are often more socially, economically and physically vulnerable than men) may be unwilling to learn and/or share their HIV status for fear of violence and/or abandonment if the results turn out positive.
However this can be checked through sensitization and awareness creation on HIV/AIDS.
SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE
The high level burden which women are facing and bear for the management of their household duties points to policy initiatives for the improvement of social infrastructure around women. For instance childcare provision, safe and efficient transport. In Uganda these are not realizable and so hinder societal advancement. However these should be put in place to favour the women
PEACE AND SECURITY
A lot towards societal advancement can be achieved when there are prevalent conducive peace and security conditions existent in a nation. This however examines the limitations of the Organization of African Unity and with peace building and development. In whatever circumstances this may be a challenge to societal advancement to both genders.
POLICY ON VIOLENCE, LAW AND WOMENS RIGHTS
Some times these policies are not enforced effectively to enforce stability of both gender rights as assumed to be recognized. Women face sexual harassment even at the work place. Asserting that women who are victims of violence are further victimized by discriminatory laws, a judicial system and the systematic manipulation of legal provisions, the contributors explore opportunities to make legal systems more responsive to women’s human right to justice and freedom from violence. (Women INK) decisions. They argue for ensuring substantive equality, eliminating yet these are not actually enforced thus posing a challenge to societal advancement.
CONCLUSION
It is crucial that development policy makers and planners realize the impact of change that varies not only by gender but also by sector, religion and class if societal advancement has to be realized especially in Uganda. Jobs in the labour market are both gender segregated and gender segmented
REFERENCES
1. Nussubaum. Martha. C., (1993), Women and Human Development: The capabilities approach. Cambridge university press.
2. www.eurodad.org/gender
3. Goldin Claudia .,June, (1985), Understanding the gender gap, Employment partners, vol. 17
4. King climber. (1985) , Social interaction between men and women
5. Understanding the Differences Between How Women and Men Communicate, May 2001,vol. 1
6. Baumman .J.John .,(1991), Managing cultural differences, Global leadership strategies, published by Butterworth Heinmann
7. Augustine Nwoye, August ,2006 ,Contemporary Family Therapy, vol. 28
8. www.murugan.org/research/ayyar.htm as retrieved ,Dec 2006 13:12:18 GMT
9. UNESCO ,2006 ,School related gender-based violence in the context of education for all: Role and Responsibility of stakeholders,vol.33.
10. www.womenink.org
11. www.worldbank.org/
In a society both men and women share some mutual concerns or interests, a common objective or common characteristics. Usually a society is significant of interactions between individuals sharing some way of life and living in the same territory. However though, affiliate behavior and social bonding is essential components of human society, yet little is known of the neural circuitry regulating these complexes.
GENDER MAINSTREAMING
The term mainstreaming came from the objective to bring attention to gender equality into the mainstream of development activities (King, 2001). An important element in the mainstreaming strategy is the ambition to give attention to gender equality from the initial stages of processes so that there is potential to influence goals, strategies and resource allocations and thus bring about changes in policies, programmes and other activities and make a real difference to gender equality.
Mainstreaming involves taking up gender equality perspectives as relevant in analysis, data collection, and other activities, to ensure that all processes take into account the contributions, priorities and needs of the entire stakeholder group, women as well as men Goldin, Claudia, (1985), Before any decisions are taken in any area of societal development an analysis should be made of the current responsibilities and contributions of both women and men and the potential impact of planned processes and activities on women and men respectively.
The first step required is an assessment of the linkages between gender equality and the issue or sector being worked on, that is, to identify the gender implications of working on, for example, poverty elimination, decision-making and power, enterprise development, and all other areas. This involves understanding why promotion of gender equality is important from a human rights/social justice perspective as well as for achievement of all other development goals.
Secondly the opportunities for introducing gender perspectives need to be identified in the work-tasks undertaken.
Thirdly an approach or methodology has to be identified for successfully incorporating gender perspectives into these work-tasks in a manner, which facilitates influencing goals, strategies, resource allocation and outcomes.
This could include, for example, giving attention to gender perspectives in terms or reference and job descriptions. Institutional development, in terms of developing guidelines, utilizing gender specialists, providing competence development for all personnel, is also required to support gender mainstreaming.
UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN
In deed the understanding between men and women is crucial for societal advancement; this will be discussed in regard to the pre- colonial and post -colonial Ugandan setting.
PRE COLONIAL UGANDA
Traditionally, both the men and women were builders of a home. They were supposed to physically bring up their children in good moral behaviour and also ensure good health. This role was done right from the family level to the community level. Each individual took responsibility of each child even if it were not their biological child.
Punishment was given to children who misbehaved by whosoever found them misbehaving and this was normal as no misunderstanding would generate between the parents and who ever gave the punishment. This in a way exhibited societal advancement as desire for peace and harmony were ensured by the homebuilders by shaping behaviour in the community.
MARRIAGE
Marriage was a sharing between men and women. Marriage in itself portrays unity, which is an aspect of societal advancement. Ceremonies were made to jubilate the union of man and woman by the entire community. This is still experienced in the modern living were customary marriages are conducted and later church marriage. Marriage was a pact /commitment to one another in health, ideas and wealth. This institution was highly respected as divorce was not commonly heard of. Once a man and woman left there home, any misunderstanding was resolved by elders to restore the marriage.
WEALTH
Traditionally like todate, wealth was as sign of societal advancement. Wealth in itself was evidenced by the children one produced. For example among the Iteso the girl child was a source of wealth, the more girl children a couple had, the more wealth. Even the more women a man had the more prestigious he was in the community.
One has to work and earn money and pay that price. The able-bodied who idle away their time and look to others for theirs survival indeed exist as parasites and prove to be a burden to the society (Ayyar, 2006) which will look down on them. The kings and chiefs had more women than they could even want.
The number of animals one had also was significant of the riches he had. Like todate the societal advancement is also gauged by the level of acquisition of wealth. Parents also attained wealth from dowry got from their bride price of their daughters. Wealth was understood or greatly associated to men, more that it was to the women.
DIVISION OF LABOUR
Division of labour was also significant of societal advancement in the pre-colonial times
Among the Teso people tasks like building of shelter were entirely a responsibility of the men. Also they were the wealth bearers, provided security, took care of herds, hunted, they did repairs in the home, marketed the crops, planned for the family and home. While the women kept homes clean, brewed local beer, fed the children, cooked and washed the utensils, collected firewood. Both the women and men knew and understood what was expected of them as regards their sex/gender. Some of these tasks are still visible even todate because of the traditional elements associated to the tasks.
ART AND ENTERTAINMENT
It was entirely a mutual understanding that both men and women, participated in creative art and entertainment. In Uganda the many tribes have traditional dances, which both parties were involved in as a means of passing leisure time. Girls and boys were both initiated to these dances at an early stage/age. This understanding was based on the fact that joy experienced during the dances was an exciting contribution of both genders in a society that tended to advance.
CARE AND HOME PLANNING
Love and care was also eminent in the traditional setting. Both men and women loved and cared for their family needs such as shelter, clothing and food. It is common knowledge that food, clothing, and shelter are the three basic necessities of life. The very existence of a man depends on fulfillment of these vital needs (Ayyar, 2006) .The basic needs were a shared responsibility that had to be catered for based on understanding. Like todate advanced societies exhibit love and care for one another.
DATING AND RELATIONSHIPS
This requires an understanding from both parties. However initiation of the relationship was entirely left to the male. Female who sought to initiate this were seen as out casts to the society and were regarded a disgrace to the family and society among the Iteso people and also among many other societies in Uganda.
LEADERSHIP AND POWER
Leadership and power was predominantly placed in the authority of the male, this was seen in kings, chiefs, family heads. This understanding was based on the fact that the men were capable of taking control of situations as compared to the female who were regarded as inferior sex.
Women were not heard of in positions that seemed to be higher than that of the men.
POST COLONIAL UGANDA
In post colonial times the trend of societal advancement aspects kept changing because of the effects this period had on the people of Uganda, these were greatly due to the influence of the colonialists whose ways of life were different from the Africans Uganda in particular, their ways have seen then been assimilated as can be noted below;
SHARING OF REPONSIBILITIES
Women like men cultivate, they are income earners, own wealth, clean the homes, cook. These have both learnt to adjust to roles that used to be associated to only a particular gender. If the colonialists had not come to Uganda probably the traditional roles could still have been in placed to one gender. This coupled with women emancipation has made men and women perform any task as societal advancement is a contribution from both male and women. It was such a taboo in the African tradition to see men cooking as among the many Ugandan tribes this was associated to greed. Todate the desire for equality, nature of jobs has put a change to all the roles associated to a particular gender.
WOMEN CLUBS
In the name of societal advancement, women activists, women groups such as the mothers union under the Anglican Church, women micro finance institutions. Women have been emancipated to take charge of events thus creating a change in many sectors; family, leadership which many women head todate. These have been imparted with skills to earn incomes, rise to power, take charge of situations as contribution to the fast growing societal advancements.
CHRISTIANITY AND RELIGION
Todate the trend of events in Christianity, Islam and even traditional religion have changed. Many women have become pastors in the churches, Bishops in the Anglican Church even in the traditional religion where it was normally the men who were consulted or were mediators between man and the gods. All these are signs of societal advancement in the post colonial times that seem to be moving very fast as the opportunity is given to both gender
DECISION MAKING /PARITICIPATION
Women todate have a right and ability to negotiate the number of children they would like to have with their partners, which was very unlikely in the past. Societal advancement to date calls for preference for small families. Today family planning is discussed among the partners, as this may be a solution to rising expenses that arise in looking after many children depending on the given cost of living today. This was not heard of in the past, as many children were significant of wealth and power. To day the less children one has, the more comfortable life one may lead because of reduced expenses that could occur.
LEADERSHIP ROLES
Like men women are managers, political leaders, social leaders and even heads of the family, which was not heard of traditionally. Women are very significant figures in the society and take decisions on behalf of many institutions. For example the ex-vice president of the National resistance movement, (NRM) Dr. Specioza Wandira Kazibwe, the women ministers in the NRM government, members of parliament. Many leaders in the traditionally Ugandan setting/pre-colonial times were followers of the male leaders.
ENROLLMEMNT IN INSTITUTIONS
Men and women both enroll into institutions like army, police. Law and order are taken care of by both he gender. while in the traditional times men took charge of defending their homes and families thus protecting even the women. But todate both are eligible to providing security for one another. Women soldiers guard top government officials. Todate women are also obliged to attend military training sessions for instance ‘’muchakamckaka’’ in Kyankwanzi in Uganda.
NATURE OF DOWRY
Women now also contribute to the dowry that used to be entirely the responsibility of the men. The nature of the economy seeks for participation and involvement. Many women have contributed to this especially where the men they love and want to get married to are not financially able. This was very unheard of in Uganda in the pre-colonial times as this was a taboo. In other words this has become a shared responsibility
SUCCESSION/HIERS AFRTER DEATH
With the trends in the society women have become successors to their fathers after death. This used to be only for the male children. The girl child todate has been realized to have potential to succeed as effectively as the male child. They both have equal opportunity to education and exposure to the modern setting thus ability to take charge of given situations
CAREER DEVELOPMENT
The opportunities available todate favour both the male and female. Women can compete with men in fields of medicine, politics, socially. Nussbuam also agrees to this, during parliamentary elections a number of women earned them selves more votes that the men. There are also so many women doctors. The education system offers free education to both the girl and male child at primary and secondary school level under the universal primary education and universal secondary school education respectively (UPE AND USE) introduced in the national resistance movement government (NRM)
However in both the contexts in the pre and post colonial times the intimate relationship between men and women that enhances co creation of humanity is normally an understanding between men and women, this goes way back to the ancestral times of Adam and Eve. With out the two parties humanity would seize to being. This therefore enforces the need and importance for each gender for societal advancement.
CHALLENGES AND LIKELY REMEDY
Insipte of the interactions between men and women in both the pre colonial and post colonial times there are a number of upheavals that retard the understanding of men and women for societal development and can be discussed below;
TRADITIONAL ATTITUDE TOWARDS WOMEN
Traditionally women are still associated to roles such as cooking, looking after children and home care takers. This then favours discrimination against women. Men have always associated women to perform certain inferior tasks, which actually they can also do. So unless this attitude changes it will always hinder societal advancement. That is why there are more late comers to work among professionals on the female side than the men.
This can be rectified through sensitizations and awareness creation of both sexes as regards their contribution to society once traditional attitudes towards woks are not associated to a particular sex. Work shops, seminars and debates should be encouraged to foster change of attitude among women and men.
Women groups should also be encouraged to rise to advance the position of women in society.
FAILURE TO ADAPT TO CURRENT CHANGES
Men have totally found it hard to adapt to the changes entailed in societal advancement as regards roles and responsibilities associated to women A man for instance may find it awkward for his friends to find him washing dishes at home. Yet you may find that the nature of work his wife has is even more demanding than his thus giving him more free time than the woman. So unless men openly start to accept and participate in tasks, in regard to the changing societal trends then there would probably be less friction in tasks allocated to a particular gender.
However the remedy for this can be to frequently engage men in female related activites for instance saloon /hairdressing, chefs/cooks, although this is slowly rising in saloons and restaurants in Uganda respectively. More tasks associated to this should be prioritized for the men. This may be discriminative but allows more opportunity for the men to access it.
GENDER STEREOTYPING
Men and women have often stereotyped certain tasks and hardly given chance for one another to perform. For instance right from the biblical teachings that say that women should be submissive to their husbands. Women are even todate considered a weaker sex, for a reason I do not know. This can be rectified through empowerment of women. Thus todate there are women leaders, managers, women are breadwinners. Thus women are as equal as the men. Many men still find this not worthy accepting so unless this stops societal advancement may be hindered.
Another example that stereo types women is the initiation of relationships, today if a women started or initiated relation with a man she would still be perceived in a weird way so these traditional way of thinking must be erased especially with the women emancipation and freedom of right to do certain things.
RESOURCES
Many of the resources are concentrated in the hands of men. Right form the traditional times men own wealth at home, inherited it from their fathers. Disparities between men and women in basic rights, access to resources, and power to determine their own lives continue to exist in virtually all countries of the world.
Despite the great influx of women into the labor market, the gap between men's and women's wages has remained stable at 40 percent since 1950. Analysis of labor data suggests that this has occurred because women's educational attainment compared to men has declined. Recently, however, the wage gap has begun to narrow, and this will probably become a trend.
Not so many women are rich. You find that women inspite of their desire and plight to want to actively engage in societal advancement activites, are hindered by limited resources in their possession especially in the rural setting.
This can be addressed through ‘’Etandikwa’’ schemes of the NRM government, micro finance institutional support to women through trainings on income generating projects so that they have their own income sources. Thus alleviating poverty especially in rural communities.
ROLE OF COMMUNICATION
Many times women are misquoted thus crating a communication gap associated to the subject of confidence, for example, Tannen writes that because women tend to verbally downplay their expertise, what may look like lack of confidence on the part of women is a reluctance to appear boastful. When women say ‘’NO’’ sometimes they are assumed to mean ‘’YES’’, Well-developed listening skills ensure that the male, are able to distinguish between the words they hear and what they really want to hear.
SCHOOL REALTED GENDER BASED VIOLENCE
Girls’ education confronts many obstacles to the triptych of access, retention and success. Typically, these obstacles stem from family, cultural, social, educational, legal or political contexts and continue to loom as a serious threat to achieving the goals of Education for All. Among them, school related gender-based violence, whose educational and psychological consequences are extremely severe, seems to develop under the very taboo that envelops it.
Indeed, as the Secretary-General's in-depth Study on Violence against Women states, despite a growing mobilization of public actors, this kind of violence persists in all countries and represents a generalized violation of human rights and a major obstacle to the achievement of gender equality. This study highlights the problems of sexual harassment and violence towards girls and women that persist within societies and educational settings. This however that possess as a challenge to societal advancement.
Some of the remedies to this would include: Raising awareness among the stakeholders of international cooperation on the theme of school related gender-based violence and on gender equality in the education sector in general.
Identifying the role and the responsibility of the three main categories of stakeholders facing gender-based violence in schools, considering their expertise and testimony: 1) national and local public authorities; 2) civil society and NGOs; 3) teachers, educational personnel and teachers’ organizations.Also the Identification of good practices and conditions for sharing and scaling up good practices as a way forward for addressing school related gender-based violence.
HIV/AIDS RELATED ISSUES
This has also posed as a challenge as both genders are exposed. HIV infection is the most devastating new disease to have emerged in recent history. Although, worldwide, approximately as many women as men suffer from HIV, this aggregate figure conceals marked differences in the implications of the disease for men and women. Some of this result from biological differences in sex between men and women, but more result from socially defined gender differences.
Women are probably more susceptible than men to infection from HIV in any given heterosexual encounter, due to biological factors – the greater area of mucous membrane exposed during sex in women than in men; the greater quantity of fluids transferred from men to women; the higher viral content of male sexual fluids; and the micro tears that can occur in vaginal (or rectal) tissue from sexual penetration. Young women may be especially susceptible to infection. Effects of this have negatively impacted the societal advancement in Uganda and Africa as a whole as many of the labour force are dying to HIV/AIDS.
Gender norms may also have an impact on HIV transmission. For example, in many places, gender norms allow men to have more sexual partners than women, and encourage older men to have sexual relations with much younger women. In combination with the biological factors cited above, this means that, in most places where heterosexual sex is the main mode of HIV transmission, infection rates are much higher among young women than among young men.
Women may want their partners to use condoms (or to abstain from sex altogether), but often lack the power to make them do so.
Women (who are often more socially, economically and physically vulnerable than men) may be unwilling to learn and/or share their HIV status for fear of violence and/or abandonment if the results turn out positive.
However this can be checked through sensitization and awareness creation on HIV/AIDS.
SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE
The high level burden which women are facing and bear for the management of their household duties points to policy initiatives for the improvement of social infrastructure around women. For instance childcare provision, safe and efficient transport. In Uganda these are not realizable and so hinder societal advancement. However these should be put in place to favour the women
PEACE AND SECURITY
A lot towards societal advancement can be achieved when there are prevalent conducive peace and security conditions existent in a nation. This however examines the limitations of the Organization of African Unity and with peace building and development. In whatever circumstances this may be a challenge to societal advancement to both genders.
POLICY ON VIOLENCE, LAW AND WOMENS RIGHTS
Some times these policies are not enforced effectively to enforce stability of both gender rights as assumed to be recognized. Women face sexual harassment even at the work place. Asserting that women who are victims of violence are further victimized by discriminatory laws, a judicial system and the systematic manipulation of legal provisions, the contributors explore opportunities to make legal systems more responsive to women’s human right to justice and freedom from violence. (Women INK) decisions. They argue for ensuring substantive equality, eliminating yet these are not actually enforced thus posing a challenge to societal advancement.
CONCLUSION
It is crucial that development policy makers and planners realize the impact of change that varies not only by gender but also by sector, religion and class if societal advancement has to be realized especially in Uganda. Jobs in the labour market are both gender segregated and gender segmented
REFERENCES
1. Nussubaum. Martha. C., (1993), Women and Human Development: The capabilities approach. Cambridge university press.
2. www.eurodad.org/gender
3. Goldin Claudia .,June, (1985), Understanding the gender gap, Employment partners, vol. 17
4. King climber. (1985) , Social interaction between men and women
5. Understanding the Differences Between How Women and Men Communicate, May 2001,vol. 1
6. Baumman .J.John .,(1991), Managing cultural differences, Global leadership strategies, published by Butterworth Heinmann
7. Augustine Nwoye, August ,2006 ,Contemporary Family Therapy, vol. 28
8. www.murugan.org/research/ayyar.htm as retrieved ,Dec 2006 13:12:18 GMT
9. UNESCO ,2006 ,School related gender-based violence in the context of education for all: Role and Responsibility of stakeholders,vol.33.
10. www.womenink.org
11. www.worldbank.org/
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